CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
Unit # 1 (Introduction)
Topics
1.
Conceptual
Understanding of Curriculum
2.
Scope
and Importance
3.
Elements
of the Curriculum
Conceptual
Understanding of Curriculum
Syllabus and
Curriculum
Syllabus and Curriculum are two
words that are often confused as words that have same sense. Strictly speaking
they are two different words that give different meanings. Syllabus refers to
the program or outline of a course of study. Curriculum on the other hand is a
word that refers to the subjects that are studied or prescribed for study in a
school or in a college. This is the main difference between syllabus and
curriculum.
In other words syllabus refers
to the portions of study prescribed in a particular subject meant for a
particular course of study. For example if Physics is a subject meant for a
course of study called ‘material science’, then the portions of study
prescribed in the subject of Physics is called as syllabus.
As a matter syllabus is
prescribed once in a year and the particular syllabus that is prescribed for
the year should be completed both by the teacher or the professor and the
student during the year. Examinations will be conducted at the end of the year
only from the particular syllabus of the year in the particular subject. This
shows that the student will follow another syllabus in the next year of a given
three-year undergraduate course.
A curriculum on the other hand
pertains to the entire period of study in a college or a school. For example
the curriculum of a certain course of study say B.Sc Chemistry includes all the
subjects, including the allied subjects to be studied as part of the entire
course of study. Hence it can be said that syllabus is a subset of curriculum.
In other words it can be said that syllabus is contained in the curriculum.
Syllabi make a curriculum. A curriculum gets completed once the syllabi get
completed. This is the difference between syllabus and curriculum.
Definitions
of Curriculum by Scholars in the Field
- Tanner
(1980) defined curriculum as “the planned and guided learning experiences
and intended outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of
knowledge and experiences under the auspices of the school, for the
learners’ continuous and willful growth in personal social competence”
(p.13).
- Schubert
(1987) defines curriculum as the contents of a subject, concepts and tasks
to be acquired, planned activities, the desired learning outcomes and
experiences, product of culture and an agenda to reform society.
- Pratt
(1980) defines curriculum as a written document that systematically
describes goals planned, objectives, content, learning activities,
evaluation procedures and so forth.
- Goodlad
and Su (1992) define curriculum as a plan that consists of learning
opportunities for a specific time frame and place, a tool that aims to
bring about behaviour changes in students as a result of planned
activities and includes all learning experiences received by students with
the guidance of the school
- Cronbleth
(1992) defines curriculum as answering three questions: what knowledge,
skills and values are most worthwhile? Why are they most worthwhile? How
should the young acquire them?
- Grundy
(1987) defines curriculum as a programme of activities (by teachers and
pupils) designed so that pupils will attain so far as possible certain
educational and other schooling ends or objectives.
- Hass
(1987) provides a broader definition, stating that a curriculum includes
“all of the experiences that individual learners have in a program of
education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific
objectives, which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and
research or past and present professional practice” (p.5).
Curriculum
In formal education,
a curriculum is the set of
courses, and their content, offered at a school or university.
As an idea, curriculum came from
the Latin word for
race course,
referring to the course of deeds and experiences through which children grow to
become mature adults.
A curriculum is prescriptive, and is based on a more general syllabus which
merely specifies what topics must be understood and to what level to achieve a
particular grade or standard. Curriculum has numerous definitions, which can be
slightly confusing. In its broadest sense a curriculum may refer to all courses
offered at a school. This is particularly true of schools at the university
level, where the diversity of a curriculum might be an attractive point to a
potential student.
A curriculum may also refer to a defined and prescribed course of studies,
which students must fulfill in order to pass a certain level of education. For
example, an elementary school might discuss how its curriculum, or its entire
sum of lessons and teachings, is designed to improve national testing scores or
help students learn the basics. An individual teacher might also refer to his
or her curriculum, meaning all the subjects that will be taught during a school
year.
On the other hand, a high school might refer to a curriculum as the courses
required in order receiving one’s diploma. They might also refer to curriculum
in exactly the same way as the elementary school, and use curriculum to mean
both individual courses needed to pass, and the overall offering of courses,
which help prepare a student for life after high school.
Curriculum
Laboratory
Curriculum laboratory is a place or workshop where curriculum materials are
gathered or used by teachers or learners of curriculum.
•Resource Unit is a collection or suggested
learning activities and materials
organized around a given topic or area which a teacher might utilize in
planning, developing, and evaluating a learning unit.
Two Schools Of
Thought on Curriculum Development
The Essentialist School
•It considers the curriculum as something rigid
consisting of discipline subjects.
•It considers all learners as much as the same and
it aims to fit the learner into the existing social order and thereby maintains
the status quo
•Its major motivation is discipline and considers
freedom as an outcome and not a means of education.
•Its approach is authoritative and the teacher’s
role is to assign lessons and to recite recitations.
•It is
book-centered and the methods recommended are memory work, mastery of facts and skills, and development of abstract intelligence.
•It has no interest in social action and
life activities.
•Its measurement
of outcomes is standard tests based on subjectmatter mastery. Traditional
Points of View of Curriculum
•Body of subjects or subject matter prepared by the
teachers for the students to learn.
•Synonymous to “course study”.
•“Permanent studies” where the rule of grammar,
reading, rhetoric, logic and mathematics for basic education emphasized.
(Hutchins)
•Most of the traditional ideas view curriculum as
written documents or plan of action in accomplishing goals. The Progressive
School
• It
conceives of the curriculum as something flexible based on areas of
interest.
•It is
learner-centered, having in mind that no two persons are alike.
•Its factor of motivation is individual
achievement believing that persons are naturally good.
•The Role of the teacher is to stimulate
direct learning process.
•It
uses a life experience approach to fit the student for future social
life.
•Constant revision of aims and experimental
techniques of teaching and
learning are imperatives in curriculum development in order to create
independent thinking, initiative, self-reliance, individuality,
self-expression and activity in the learner.
•Its measurement of outcomes is now devices taking
into consideration subject matter and personality values. Progressive
Points of View of Curriculum
•Listing of subjects, syllabi, course of study and
list of courses or specific
discipline can only be called curriculum if these written materials
are actualized by the learner.
• Total
learning experiences of the individual.
•All experiences children have under the guidance
of teachers. – Caswell & Campbell
•Experiences in the classroom which are planned andenacted by the teacher, and also learned by the
students.
Scope of Curriculum
Curriculum practice is what curriculum makers’ work at. Curriculum inquiry
is the study of this work in all its aspects: context, assumptions, conduct,
problems and outcomes. Such inquiry embraces at least three kinds of phenomena.
The first is substantive and has to do with goals, subject matter, materials
and the like – the commonplaces of any curriculum. Inquiry is into their nature
and worth. The second is political-social. Inquiry involves the study of all
those human processes that through which some interests come to prevail over
others so that these ends and means rather than other emerge. The third is
technical-professional. Curriculum inquiry examines those processes of group or
individual engineering, logistics and evaluation through which curricula are
improved, installed or replaced.
The Substantive in Practice: the substantive takes us into all those
matters of goals what is taught, how what is taught is arranged or evaluated,
what evaluation procedures are used and so on – which have been gist for the
mills of curriculum planners, theorists and researchers for many years. But the
focus almost always has been on what ought to be, not what is. An external
observer might ask questions, such as, what are children and youth taught in
school? How much time is devoted to what topics? When and for what time periods
do topics reappear? What is done with them the second or third time that was
not done the first time these topics were introduced?
There are other perceptions. What do teachers perceive the curriculum to
be? Students? School board members? Parents? The curriculum is in the eye of
beholder. And so there are many curricula perceived simultaneously by different
individuals and groups. Therefore, it is necessary for the curriculum maker
that all these points should be kept in mind while designing the curriculum.
The Political-Social in Practice: one of the blessings of dealing with only
substantive components of curriculum is relative isolation from areas of
ultimate use. The development of ideas is not easy, of course, but any voyage
of commitment seeking acceptance of these ideas in sociopolitical discussions
can be soul searing. Ideas must endure intense competition where much more is
at stake than simply their validity.
The term “political” is not used here in any pejorative sense. It pertains
to those processes through which differing views of what is desirable are
placed in public competition and, usually, achieve at least a temporary status
of primacy. Views range from those representing short-term parochial interests
to those embracing noble images of the future. In curriculum planning,
governmental leaders choose, for example, between alternative views of the creation
of man and of how capital should be distributed. Their choices place
restrictions on the freedom exercised by local school boards in determining the
ends and means of school under their jurisdiction. Likewise, the choices of
both legislators and school board members have far-reaching implications for
what boys and girls study in the lower schools.
The Technical-Professional in Practice: it is clear that technical
operations requiring specialized knowledge and skills enter into all levels and
aspects of practice. State and national governments employ
professional-technical staffs to gather certain essential data and to implement
policy. The superintendent of schools in a local district provides school board
members with information regarding curricular practice and, personally or
through others, seeks to maintain and improve what is taught in the schools.
These individuals are from time to time called upon to report on the economy,
efficiency, humaneness or relevance of educational programs within their sphere
of authority.
Importance of Curriculum
Every successful concept and project in life requires a proper
framework and planning. This relates to all processes, including education.
Whenever we embark on any new plan or procedure, we need to make sure that we
have all the plans drawn up. What is on offer, what are the resources that we
have, what are the steps, which we need to take and what are the goals that we
need to achieve are some elements that need to be looked upon. A similar set of
constraints when applied to education in schools and colleges gives birth to
curriculum. A curriculum is a set of courses, including their content, offered
at a school or university. The curriculum often contains a detailed list of
subjects and the elements of teaching them.
John Franklin Bobbitt’s “The Curriculum” published in 1918
mentions curriculum as an idea that has its roots in the Latin word
‘race-course’. He also explained “The Curriculum” as the course of deeds and
experiences through which children grow up into adults and get going for
success in the society. A curriculum is more than putting together a set of
academically required subjects. It must consider all aspects of the student
life, the learning needs of students, the time available for the sessions and
the teachers’ idea, capability and workload. Now that we know the constitution
of a curriculum, let us study its importance in the lines that follow.
Significance of Curriculum
In Elementary Schools
In elementary schools, the curriculum is primarily drawn by the
educational boards or some central society. They study the needs of the kids
and all other feasibilities before selecting courses and drafting a curriculum.
Here, the students have least choice in their subjects and study based on a
universal curriculum, which works on all sections of the students’ psyche and
aid in the total development of the student. No area is left untouched. Hence,
the curriculum aids in the proper development, while the child comes to terms
with his or her own inclination. Therefore, at primary school levels, the
curriculum aims at providing a structured platform, which gives every child an
equal opportunity to excel.
In High Schools
At high school levels, teenagers can take their own liberty in
choosing their path. Though complete autonomy does not rest with a
student, a level of choice is very evident. This helps in the development of
the teenager, with added importance of being given the field of his own choice.
At this stage, the development is more focused and rampant, enhanced through a
proper curriculum. Without an effective curriculum, a student would not be
able to understand or meet the challenges of the society.
At College & Higher Education
At a higher stage of education, an unprecedented autonomy is
provided to the students. The students can opt for a more focused curriculum,
based on their choice of subjects. A student will graduate, post-graduate or
attain a doctorate based on the choice of his subjects and the mode of his
study, both or either one determined by him. The curriculum here is reduced to
just a framework that is very flexible yet very important. The curriculum
chosen by the student will go on to determine the shape of his career. A
curriculum prepares an individual with the knowledge to be successful,
confident and responsible citizens.
Elements of the Curriculum
Curriculum in narrow view includes
content and examination. In wider frame curriculum includes aims, learning
methods and subject matter sequencing. Broader concept of curriculum describes
it as a sophisticated blend of educational strategies, course content, learning
outcomes, educational experiences, assessment, the educational environment and
the individual students’ learning style, personal timetable and the program of
work
Curriculum not only covers the formal teaching/learning but also the other aspects of human development associated with institutional life. It will transform a student into a productive citizen.
In the time of information explosion, the curriculum planners must not only decide what should be taught but also what can be eliminated from the curriculum, hence the need to define minimum essential knowledge and skills i.e. core knowledge and skills.
Curriculum not only covers the formal teaching/learning but also the other aspects of human development associated with institutional life. It will transform a student into a productive citizen.
In the time of information explosion, the curriculum planners must not only decide what should be taught but also what can be eliminated from the curriculum, hence the need to define minimum essential knowledge and skills i.e. core knowledge and skills.
The term curriculum is a Latin
word meaning “the course of a chariot race” (Schubert, 1986). Traditionally
curriculum included two elements: content and examination (Harden and Stamper,
1999). According to Burton & McDonald (2001) it is difficult to provide a
simple dictionary definition for this term because of its complex nature.
Simply it can be considered as the list of topics taught in the school or in an
institution. In wider view it encompasses all the experiences that the student
undergoes through while being part of that institution.
Strength of the curriculum is beyond the written documents produced by the faculty.
Harden et al. (1997) said that a curriculum should be viewed not simply as an aggregate of separate subjects, but rather as a program of study where the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. According to Garcia-Barbero (1995) curriculum is the result of bringing together a number of elements - content, strategies and methods – to ensure quality in education and excellence in performance, but should have a right mix of elements to ensure efficiency and to facilitate learning. Harden (2001) has elaborated on this concept “a curriculum is a sophisticated blend of educational strategies, course content, learning outcomes, educational experiences, assessment, the educational environment and the individual students’ learning style, personal timetable and the program of work”.
Barnett (2000) states “curricula in higher education are to a large degree ‘hidden curricula’… They take on certain patterns and relationships but those patterns and relationships will be hidden from all concerned, except as they are experienced by the students”.
Strength of the curriculum is beyond the written documents produced by the faculty.
Harden et al. (1997) said that a curriculum should be viewed not simply as an aggregate of separate subjects, but rather as a program of study where the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. According to Garcia-Barbero (1995) curriculum is the result of bringing together a number of elements - content, strategies and methods – to ensure quality in education and excellence in performance, but should have a right mix of elements to ensure efficiency and to facilitate learning. Harden (2001) has elaborated on this concept “a curriculum is a sophisticated blend of educational strategies, course content, learning outcomes, educational experiences, assessment, the educational environment and the individual students’ learning style, personal timetable and the program of work”.
Barnett (2000) states “curricula in higher education are to a large degree ‘hidden curricula’… They take on certain patterns and relationships but those patterns and relationships will be hidden from all concerned, except as they are experienced by the students”.
Curriculum should force learning
process which is as similar as possible to professional activities
(Garcia-Barbero, 1995).One way is to deliver instruction simultaneously in an integrated
fashion e.g. teaching basic sciences in the clinical context along with
psychosocial and ethical issues integrated into the cases (Miller et al.,
2000).
The curriculum is a coherent unit of planned activities that are undertaken by a learner during his entire learning career under the coaching of the university. The curriculum indicates what objectives must be achieved by the student and what tasks must be fulfilled in order to achieve these.
A curriculum always primarily relates to an entire study program and consists of course subjects and possibly groups of course subjects. Traditionally content has always been considered the most important and relevant component of the curriculum.
The curriculum is a coherent unit of planned activities that are undertaken by a learner during his entire learning career under the coaching of the university. The curriculum indicates what objectives must be achieved by the student and what tasks must be fulfilled in order to achieve these.
A curriculum always primarily relates to an entire study program and consists of course subjects and possibly groups of course subjects. Traditionally content has always been considered the most important and relevant component of the curriculum.
Course is a subset of a program
of study (equivalent to a module or unit of study). Academic staff, in
collaboration with support staff, has the expertise to design and deliver
courses based upon knowledge of student's needs. The design of course should be
done through very specific institutional procedures. The each faculty should
poses clear, documented procedures for proposing, planning, internal approval,
and validation of course, involving external and internal peer judgment. The
Faculty Regulations provide the framework for course design.
Outcome-based education and a
performance-based approach help to process of curriculum development in a way
that offers a powerful and appealing way of reforming and managing medical
education. The emphasis is on the product -what sort of doctor will be
produced- rather than on the educational process. In outcome-based education
the educational outcomes are clearly and specified. These determine the
curriculum content and its organization, the teaching methods and strategies,
the courses offered, the assessment process, the educational environment and
the curriculum timetable. They also provide a framework for curriculum
evaluation. It encourages the teacher and the student to share responsibility
for learning and it can guide student assessment and course evaluation. What
sort of outcomes should be covered in a curriculum, how should they be assessed
and how should outcome-based education be implemented are issues that need to
be addressed.
Key elements and relationships in curriculum
Key elements within the
curriculum and the relationships between them are shown in diagram 1 below.
Staff and
students are at the heart of curriculum. The relationships between them are
shaped by the answers to key questions about:
- assessment,
- content,
- learning
interactions and
- The
connections between those elements.
In the diagram
the top question in each pair is a design question for staff. The lower set of
questions is commonly asked by students to shape their approach to learning.
Curriculum design should help ensure alignment between the answers staff build
into their design and those that students find through their experience of the
curriculum.
Key
elements and relationships in the curriculum
These elements and relationships
of course are all context bound. In current systemic approaches to curriculum
design, a major element of the educational context is the intended learning
outcomes for students of a topic or course.
Intended learning outcomes frame
and influence the detail and alignment of assessment, learning interactions and
content (Biggs, 1999). Intended learning outcomes describe the characteristics
that a student should be able show on successful completion of a course or
topic. Assessment gauges the extent of students' achievement of the
intended outcomes, learning interactions and content should help to build
towards students' achievement of those outcomes.
Alignment in the curriculum: outcomes
influence internal elements – elements align towards students achieving
outcomes
Intended learning outcomes are formed
under the influences of:
- university
policy and regulations,
- the
interests of the particular academic discipline,
- our
understanding of the characteristics of students entering the course of
topics,
- the
expectations of society, professions and potential employers, and
educational theory and good practices
Foundation
of Curriculum
Unit # 2 (Foundation of Curriculum)
1.
Philosophical
Foundations
2.
Psychological
Foundations
3.
Socio-Cultural
Foundations
Philosophical
Foundations
Based
upon fundamental beliefs that arise from one's philosophy of education
curricular decisions involve consideration of several topics and issues.
Precisely for this reason, we consider philosophy one of the major foundation
areas in curriculum. In this section, we shall explore several different
philosophies of education that influence curricular decisions.
Philosophy
and curriculum
Studying
philosophy helps us deal with our own personal systems of beliefs and values,
i.e., the way we perceive the world around us and how we define what is
important to us. As philosophical issues have always influenced society and
institutions of learning, a study of the philosophy of education in terms of
curriculum development is essential.
In
essence, a philosophy of education influences, and to a large extent
determines, our educational decisions and alternatives. Those who are
responsible for curricular decisions, therefore, should be clear about what
they believe. If we are unclear or confused about our own beliefs, then our
curricular plans are bound to be unclear and confusing. One important step in
developing a personal philosophy of education is to understand the various
alternatives that others have developed over the years. Here we shall look into
the following four major philosophical positions that have, hitherto,
influenced curriculum development.
i) Idealism
ii) Realism
iii) Pragmatism
iv) Existentialism.
i)
Idealism
The
doctrine of idealism suggests that matter is an illusion and that ability is
that which exists mentally. It emphasises moral and spiritual reality as the chief
explanation of the world and considers moral values absolute, timeless and
universal.
If
we apply this view to education what would be the implications for the role of
teachers and curriculum in education? Obviously, teachers would act as role
models of enduring values. And the school must be highly structured and ought
to advocate only those ideas that demonstrate enduring values. The materials
used for instruction, therefore, would centre around broad ideas particularly
those and/or scriptures. Since it is based contained in great works of
literature on broad ideas and concepts, idealism is not in line with the
beliefs of those who equate learning with acquisition of specific facts from
various
Proponents
of realism view the world in terms of objects and matter. They believe that
human behaviour is rational when it conforms to the laws of nature and is
governed by social laws. Applied to education, those ideas begin to reveal a
second possible philosophy of education. What kind of philosophy will that be?
'Realists' consider education a matter of reality rather than speculation.
Application, The paramount responsibility of the teacher, then, is to impart to
learners the knowledge about the world they live in. What various disciplines
have discovered about the world scholars of constitutes this knowledge.
However, like the idealists, the realists too stress that education should
reflect permanent and enduring values that have been handed down through
generations, but only to the extent that they do not interfere with the study
of particular disciplines. Clearly, unlike the idealists who consider classics
ideal subject matter for studies, the realists view the subject expert as the
source and authority for determining the curriculum.
iii) Pragmatism
Idealism
and realism, In contrast to the traditional philosophies, pragmatism gives
importance to change, processes and relativity, as it suggests that the value
of an idea lies in its actual consequences. The actual consequences are related
to those aims that focus on practical aspects in teaching and learning (Nash,
1995). According to pragmatists, learning occurs as the person engages in
transacting with the environment. Basic to this interaction is the nature of
change. In this sense, whatever values and ideas are upheld currently would be
considered tentative since further social development must refine or change
them. For instance, at a particular period of time it was generally believed
that the earth was flat which was subsequently disproved through scientific
research.
To
consider, therefore, what is changeless (idealism) and inherited the perceived universe
(rea1ism) and to discard social and/or perceptual change is detrimental to the
overall development and growth of children. You can now visualise how
pragmatism would have influenced the framing of curriculum. Curriculum,
according to the pragmatists, should be so planned that it teaches the learner
how to think critically rather than what to think. Teaching should, therefore,
be more exploratory in nature than explanatory. And, learning takes place in an
active way as learners solve problems which help them widen the horizons of
their knowledge and reconstruct their experiences in consonance with the
changing world. What then might be the role of the teacher? The role is not
simply to disseminate information but to construct situations that involve both
direct experience with the world of the learner and opportunities to understand
these experiences.’ Idealism’ and 'realism' emphasize values and subject
manner, respectively.
What
does’ pragmatism' emphasize?
Having
seen three basic philosophical positions that have influenced curriculum
development, let us now look at the fourth one.
iv) Existentialism doctrine
Emphasizes
that there are no values outside human beings, this and thus, suggests that
human beings should have the freedom to make choices and then be responsible
for the consequences of those choices. According to this philosophy, learners
should be put into a number of i.e., learners should be given freedom to
choice-making situations, choose what to study. It emphasizes that education
must centre on the foundations of Curriculum perceptions and feelings of the
individual in order to facilitate understanding of personal reactions or responses
to life situations. Of primary concern in this process is the individual. Since
life is based upon personal meanings, the nature of education, the
existentialists would argue, should be largely determined by the learner.
Individual learners should not be forced into pre-determined programmes of
study. Whatever the learner feels he/ she must learn should be respected and facilitated
by the system. An existentialist curriculum, therefore, would consist of
experiences and subjects that lend themselves to philosophical dialogue and
acts of making choices, stressing self-expressive activities, premeditation and
media that illustrate emotions and insights. The teacher, then, takes on a
non-directive role. The tender is viewed as a partner in the process of learning.
As a professional, the teacher serves as a resource facilitating the
individual's search for personal meaning rather than imposing some
predetermined values or interests on learners. Existentialism has gained
greater popularity in recent years. Today, many educationists talk about
focusing on the individual, promoting diversity in the curriculum and
emphasizing the personal needs and interests of learners. Here, perhaps, we can
recall the philosophy that underlies the open distance education system.
Learner-autonomy, which the existentialists seem to suggest, has been and
remains the prime characteristic feature of the distance mode of
teaching-learning. Because of the explosion in knowledge and tremendous growth
in curriculum of the past seems to be obsolete. Information technology, the To
plug the gap between the needs of the learner, the society and the curriculum
content, rethinking in the area of curriculum development appears to be
unavoidable. What might have been relevant in a particular situation need not
necessarily always be so. In essence, social changes demand changes in the
existing pattern of education. The inherent potentiality of the system of
distance education enables it to accommodate and cater to these changes. It
should be clear from the above discussion that by and large, in operational
terms, both pragmatism and existentialism find ample expression in open
distance
Each
of the four major philosophies just described begins with a particular view of
human nature and of values and truths, and then proceeds to suggest what such a
view implies for curriculum development. Before we conclude our discussion on
the philosophical foundations of curriculum, we should make note of a few
educational philosophies in order to reinforce what has been said so far.
Although aspects of educational philosophy can be derived from the roots of
idealism, realism, pragmatism and existentialism, a common approach is to
provide a pattern of educational philosophies which derives from the major
schools of philosophy some of which have been touched upon above. Here, we
shall be looking into the following four educational philosophies for their
implications in the area of curriculum development.
i) Perennialism
ii) Progressivism
iii) Essentialism, and
iv)
Reconstructionism.
Let
us discuss each one of these in this very order.
i)
Perennialism
It
advocates the permanency of knowledge that has stood the test of time and
values that have moral and spiritual bases. The underlying idea is that
education is constant, absolute and universal. Obviously,
"perennialism" in education is born of "idealism" in
general philosophy. The curriculum of the perennialist is subject-centered. It
draws heavily on defined disciplines or logically organised bodies of content, but
it emphasizes teaching learning of languages, literature, sciences and arts.
The teacher is viewed as an authority in a particular discipline and teaching
is considered an art of imparting informational knowledge and stimulating
discussion. In such a scheme of things, students are regarded immature as they
lack the judgment required to determine what should be studied, and also that
their interests demand little attention as far as curriculum development is
concerned. There is usually only one common curriculum for all students with
little room for elective subjects. According to this point of view putting some
students through an academic curriculum and others through a vocational
curriculum is to deny the latter genuine equality of educational opportunity.
Such
views appeal to those educators who stress intellectual meritocracy. Their
emphasis is on testing students, enforcing tougher academic standards/programmes,
and on identifying and encouraging talented students.
ii)
Progressivism
This
emerged as a protest against perennialist thinking in education. It was
considered a contemporary reformist movement in educational, social and
political affairs during the 1920's and 30's. According to progressivist
thought, the skills and tools of learning include problem solving methods and
scientific inquiry. In addition, learning experiences should include
cooperative behaviour and self- discipline, both of which are important for
democratic living. The curriculum, thus, was interdisciplinary in nature and the
teacher was seen as a guide for students in their problem-solving and
scientific projects. Although the progressive movement in education encompassed
many different theories and practices, it was united in its opposition to the
following traditional attributes and practices: the authoritarian teacher;
excessive dependence on textbook methods; memorization of factual data and
learning by excessive drilling; static aims and materials that reject the
notion of a changing world; and attempts to isolate education from individual
experiences and social reality. Although the major thrust of progressive
education waned in the 1950's with the advent of "essentialism", the philosophy has left its imprint on
education and educational practices of today. Contemporary progressivism is
expressed in several movements including those for a socially relevant
curriculum, i.e., a match between subjects taught and student needs which is
one of the theoretical bases of distance education.
- Essentialism
This
philosophy, rooted partly in idealism and partly in realism, evolved mainly as
a critique of progressive thought in education. Yet, the proponents of
essentialism do not totally reject progressive methods as they do believe that
education should prepare the learner to adjust to a changing society. Thus, in
essentialism learning should consist in mastering the subject matter that
reflects currently available knowledge in various disciplines. Teachers play a
highly directive role by disseminating information to students. According to
this viewpoint, the main arms of the institution (be it a school or a
college) get sidetracked, when, at the
expense of cognitive needs, it attempts to pay greater attention to the social
and psychological problems of students.
In
recent years, the essentialist position has been stated vociferously by critics
who claim that educational standards softened during the 1960s and early 1970s.
The most notable achievements of the essentialists have been the widespread
implementation of competency based programmes, the establishment of grade-level
achievement standards, and the movement to reemphasize academic subjects in
schools/colleges. In many ways, the ideas of essentialism lie behind attacks on
the quality of education by the media and by local pressure groups, which
includes, to a good extent, attachés on distance education.
iv)
Reconstructionism
It
views education as a means of reconstructing society. The school/college is
attended by virtually reconstructionists believe that as all youth, it must be
used as a means to shape the attitudes and values of each generation. As a
result, when the youth become adults they will share certain common values, and
thus the society will have reshaped itself. As for the curriculum, it must
promote new social, economic and political education. The subject matter is to
be used as a vehicle for studying social problems which must serve as the focus
of the curriculum. The following gives you a view of the reconstructionist
programme of education: critical examination of the cultural heritage of a
society as well as the entire civilization; scrutiny of controversial issues;
commitment to bring about social and constructive change; cultivation of a
planning-in-advance attitude that considers the realities of the world we live
in; and enhancement of cultural renewal and internationalism. Stemming from
this view, reconstruction expands the field of curriculum to include intuitive,
personal, mystical, linguistic, political and social systems of theorizing. In
general, the curriculum advocated by reconstructionists emphasizes the social
sciences-history, political science, economics, sociology, psychology and
philosophy-and not the pure sciences. The thrust is on developing individual
self-realization and freedom through cognitive and intellectual activities, and
thus, on liberating people from the restrictions, limitations and controls of
society. The idea is that we have had enough of discipline-based education and
narrow specialization, and that we don't need more specialists now, we need
more "good" people if we want to survive.
Ideas
about curriculum and teaching do not arise in a vacuum. As curriculum
development is heavily influenced by philosophy, those involved in such
planning should be clear about contemporary, dominant philosophy. If we are
unclear about our philosophy of education, our curriculum plans and teaching
procedures will tend to be inconsistent and confused. This being so, we should
be aware of the fact that development and awareness of a personal philosophy of
education is a crucial professional responsibility. Further, we need to be
constantly open to new ideas and insights that may lead to a revision or
refinement of our philosophies. Our position should be that no single
philosophy, old or new, should serve as the exclusive guide for making
decisions about curriculum. What we, as curriculum specialists, need to do, is
to adopt an eclectic approach, in which there is no emphasis on the extremes of
subject matter or socio-psychological development, excellence or quality. In
essence, what we need is a prudent philosophy-one that is politically and
economically feasible and that serves the needs of students and society. It is
here that open distance education comes forth with its promises for the future.
Sociological
Foundations
Any
discussion of curriculum should consider the social setting and its influence
on curricular decisions. Social pressures influence the characteristics of
students who experience the curriculum in the established and maintained by
society. Educational institutions which are college/school and learn great
Students live in a world larger than the deal from experiences in that part of
their lives. What a learner acquires college/school and outside may be
complementary or conflicting to in the each other. The latter case gives rise
to the complaint that what is learned college/school has little to do with the
real world. But, in the former in college/school may be a major factor in the
improvement of case the society by helping young people to develop the capacity
to respond intelligently to social problems.
In this way, the curriculum serves not only the needs of the learner,
but also the needs of society. For these reasons, in developing curricular
plans, we must consider the characteristics of contemporary society as well as
those that are expected to emerge in the future. Of course, curriculum planning
and course- content basically depends on an analysis of the nature of society
(Kelly, 1989). Keeping these facts in view, we shall now discuss how society
influences the making of curriculum.
Society
and education
Most of us regard
education as synonymous with schooling. But, in colleges/schools still actual
fact even a society that has no formal educates its young through ceremonies,
rituals, stories, observation and emulation of parents, elders, etc. The norms
of society govern inter- personal relations and produce a model personality-the
attitudes, feelings and behaviour patterns most members of a society share. It
also assigns specific roles to each of its members and expects them to
The Field of Curriculum
conforms to certain established behavioural patterns. Sex roles the way boys
and girls, men and women are supposed to act-provide a good example for this
type of socialisation. Sex roles vary from one culture to the other, but within
a given set-up they are rather well-defined. This leads us to conclude that
besides the classroom-curriculum, society also plays a vital role in shaping
the attitudes of the young. Clearly, global aspects of human growth and
development are accomplished partly by the structured curriculum in use in colleges
schools and partly by society. Does this mean that a curriculum should mirror
current social forces? A curriculum while reflecting contemporary social forces
should also be able to respond to the dynamics of change. By implication, the
curriculum should not only reflect society but also help to shape it.
Social
change and the curriculum
Contemporary
society is changing so swiftly that we have difficulty coping with it,
adjusting ourselves to the present and preparing for the future. Contrary to
this fact, our colleges/schools appear to be conservative institutions that
usually lag behind the change. To make education respond to social changes, a curriculum
should be framed keeping in mind, among other things, the following:
i) Growth of technology;
ii) Structure of the family; and
iii) Cultural diversity.
What
we mean by each of these is discussed below:
i) Growth of technology
Today,
the young are growing up in a world that is very different from that of a generation
or two ago. Connected with this is the fact that ours is a society based on
information. In addition to the creation of new kinds of jobs, this new
information- society will influence all the other aspects of the workplace. At
one level, such influence will motivate societies to use computers and other
information-processing devices to replace manual workers, at another, In
agricultural and the locale of the workplace will also be affected. Industrial
phases, workers have had to be brought to a central location are produced.
Given the availability of where goods communications technology, this kind of
centralization will no longer be necessary for every activity. One can simply
work at home using micro- computers. And, increased value will be placed upon
persons who can network their credentials to fill the emerging needs of the
information society.
Underlying
all this is a serious challenge to the ethics of work that has pervaded our
society and schools colleges. Among the values the schools/colleges have
promoted are those related to the productive industrial worker-punctuality,
loyalty, acceptance, appearance etc. In Foundations of Curriculum the decentralized
information-society, workers will find themselves largely working alone,
setting flexible work patterns, working hours and servicing more than one
employer. Furthermore, having been replaced by new technology, many will have
difficulty finding new jobs because they lack certain skills. Thus, the
combination of the growth of technology and of the information society may lead
to a serious review of the traditional ethics of work and its place in our
society. Obviously, curriculum will have to undergo a change in order to match
with and capture social changes.
ii) Structures of family
The
family has been viewed as the basis of the complex social fabric. The picture
of the family consisting of both natural parents and their children is steadily
fading, replaced by a much more complicated diversity of family structures. For
example, separation, divorce and childbirth without marriage have given rise to
the phenomenon of single parent homes. Geographical mobility is weakening the
bonds of the centrally located, extended family of grandparents, aunts, uncles
and other relatives. Traditionally, while men used to go out to work, women
managed the home. Now we find increasing number of families in which both the
father and the mother work.
How
does these influence educational institutions? The school/college as we know it
today evolved in the context of the traditional family structure. Mothers were
expected to provide a stable and predictable environment for young people. When
children had problems in school/colleges, parents could be called upon to
devote time and energy to support the values and efforts of the school/college.
Today, these expectations are no longer certain. As the structure of family has
changed, so has its role and function in relation to school/college. the Traditionally
our lives have been focused on common social features of life and even
conformity. Today, however, people have begun to seek more diversity in life
styles, seeking new pathways and alternative routes. Among the many
institutions that are affected by the new wave of individualism and diversity
is the school/college. The reason is that schools/colleges have served as major
sources for promoting common values among youth. This new trend in life
patterns and values poses serious questions in curriculum planning. Consequent
upon the changing face of society, mention at least three factors that should be
thought about while framing a curriculum. The Field of Curriculum Besides the
structure of the family, changes in sex roles are also becoming more and more
emphatic. Symptoms of the breakdown in sex-role stereotypes are clearly visible
in many areas of life. As women assume new roles and demonstrate excellence and
ability in them, some disgust or resentment on the part of those who continue
to cling to old stereotypes cannot be avoided. The changing perception and
reality of sex roles and this opposition to such changes will also have a
tremendous impact on curriculum development.
iii) Cultural diversity
As
we are moving away from "a melting-pot" society to a "salad
bowl" one, the increasing trend away from a homogeneous culture towards
one of diversity/plurality is quite conspicuous. This shift of movement can be
attributed to the following phenomena: diversity in values and life-styles (being
different is now a socially sanctioned idea); renewed interest in ethno-history
(people have developed a new interest in their own histories and personal
heritage); and development in telecommunications (people have been reminded of
their links with cultures in other parts of the world). Traditionally, an
educational institution has been viewed as the major social agent in the
"melting-pot" process. Now it is caught in an ambiguous position
between its traditional role and the emerging trend towards diversity. The
question as to how the curriculum should portray cultural values, then gains
importance in curriculum development today. Having reviewed the social changes
and pointed to their impact on curriculum planning, we might say that the human
society is, in general, in transition from an industrial to post-industrial
phase of our history, though at different stages of advancement. Identifying
the general direction that the new phase will take is particularly challenging
since there is no historical precedent for post- industrialism. As long as a
society is dynamic, the debate over the aims of education will stir up changes.
Perhaps this is good, perhaps this is what makes society viable and able to
resist decay.
Planning
for curricular change
If
we look into the aims and priorities of education from the turn of this century
onwards, we can identify links in the chain of evolution which has caused
socio-educational changes. To illustrate the point, in the early twentieth
century, rigorous intellectual training was considered the ultimate goal of
education. However, in the second and the third decades of the century,
progressive educationists insisted on broadening the scope of
school-curriculum, which was purely academic, by incorporating non-academic and
vocational elements in the curriculum. This priority reappeared with emphasis
in the 1960s and the 1970s. This appears to hold good even, at the close of
twentieth century. What do we deduce from what we have said above? Educational
aims should be flexible and able to change in accordance with changing social
needs. If a major means for survival is to catch fish, lash horses and frighten
away tigers, it is natural that the school/college in this society will have a
curriculum to meet these needs. Suppose the conditions change-streams dry up,
horses and tigers survival? Unquestionably, educational aims must be relevant
to the times. What is the mechanism, then, by which we can bring in social
changes so as to make the curriculum serve the needs of society? To ensure socially
relevant curriculum, for example, the panels and commissions, which formulate
educational priorities, should comprise the following representative groups:
i) Students: Post secondary students are mature
enough to provide appropriate inputs in developing educational aims.
ii) Parents: As parents are interested in the
overall development of their children, parental inputs are necessary.
iii) Educators: Teachers, administrators and
public leaders must assume responsibility in developing educational aims
priorities.
iv) Researchers: The role of the researcher or
social scientist is important for providing objective data concerning issues
and trends.
V) Community members: Their support in the
formulation of priorities should be considered significant as they decide
matters pertaining to school/college and fiscal matters, directly and
indirectly.
vi) Business community: Because of its economic
political influence and interest in the outcomes of educational enterprise in
terms of human resource development technology and industrial output, it needs
to be represented.
vii)
Political officials: They should be enlisted because, educational policy and
politics, by and large, go together.
viii)
Pressure groups: People show considerable impact by organising themselves into
groups that promote special interests. The operation of such groups is clearly
valid within the democratic process. In this section we tried to show that
social forces have always had a major impact on curriculum development. In order
to prepare students for the world of tomorrow, the curriculum, while mirroring
a society should also keep evaluating the ever changing social trends.
Let us now talk about
yet another foundation area which helps formulate an effective curriculum.
Psychological
Foundations
By
providing a basis for understanding the teaching learning process, educational
psychology deals with how people learn. By implication, it emphasizes the need
to recognise diversity among learners. However, it is also true that people
share certain common characteristics. Among these are basic psychological needs
which are necessary for individuals to lead a full and happy life. In this
section, we shall be talking about the major learning theories and their
contribution to curriculum development. Besides, we shall touch upon the basic
psychological needs of individuals and reflect on their translation into
curriculum. We shall at this juncture remind ourselves that our main thrust
will be on the contributions made by the theories of learning for curriculum
development. Let us therefore make it clear that we are not, right now,
interested in studying the theories of learning in detail, which has already
been done to some extent in earlier courses on distance education.
Learning theories and
curriculum
For the sake of
convenience we have classified the major theories of learning into the
following groups: behaviorist theories which deal with various aspects of
stimulus-
i)
Response and reinforcement scheme;
ii) Cognitive theories which view the learner in
relationship with the total environment; and
iii) Phenomenology which emphasizes the affective
domain of learning.
Let us take up each of
them in the given order and examine its contribution to curriculum development.
i) Behaviourism and curriculum
The
behaviourist school, which represents traditional psychology, is rooted in a
corresponding philosophical speculation about the nature of learning. It has
particularly dominated psychology in the first half of the twentieth century.
After a few decades of being in the wilderness recently gained currency once
again with the advent of individualized education. Without going into the
details we shall touch upon the main, characteristic features of the
behaviourist school of thought. Essentially, learning is considered a
habit-formation and teaching is regarded as arranging learning experiences in
such a way as to promote desirable behaviour. Further, behaviourism maintains
that what is learnt in one situation can be transferred to other situations as
well. Broadly, behaviourists advocate that: behaviour is likely to be
influenced by the conditions under which learning takes place; attitudes to and
abilities of learning can change or improve over time through the application
of proper stimuli; learning experiences can be designed and controlled to
create desired learning; selective reinforcement is essential; and rote
learning and memorization of knowledge are unnecessary. Having thus touched
upon the crux of behaviourism, we shall now turn our attention to its
contribution to curriculum development. It provides the following significant
guidelines. A curriculum, according to behaviourists, should be based on the
following concerns:
i) Remedial measures, acquisition of skills,
considerations of basic or advanced learning;
ii) Well-defined, short-term and long-term
objectives;
iii) Appropriate instructional materials and media
to suit the learner's abilities;
iv)
Shaping behaviour through prescribed tasks, phase by phase activities, close
supervision of activities and positive reinforcement;
V) Diagnosing, assessing and reassessing the
learners' needs, objectives, activities, tasks and instruction with a view to
improving the curriculum. We can observe manifestations of these guidelines in
the theories, principles or trends related to: individualized education (and to
some extent, open system of education); instructional design and systems;
teacher-training techniques such as simulation teaching, microteaching,
competency-performance based teacher education; educational technology
including programmed instruction (which provides, with modifications, a base
for self- instructional materials in use in the distance mode of teaching
learning).
ii)
Cognitivism and curriculum
Today
most psychologists explain the phenomenon of human growth and development in
cognitive, social, psychological and physical terms. They also note that
learning is primarily cognitive in nature. Growth and development refer to
changes in the structure and function of human character. Most cognitivists believe that growth and
development occur in progressive stages. One example is Piaget's (Piaget, 1950)
description of cognitive development in terms of stages from birth to maturity.
Most curriculum specialists tend to show greater adherence to Cognitivism than
to behaviourism. This might be because the cognitive approach leads to logical
methods for organising and interpreting learning; and the cognitive approach is
rooted in the tradition of teaching based on subject matter. Even contemporary
behaviourists incorporate cognitive processes in their schools/colleges
emphasises the theories of learning. Because learning in cognitive domain, it
follows that most educationists feel that learning is synonymous with cognitive
development. As a corollary, a problem solving approach in teaching learning
gains currency. But, if we take an actual teaching/learning situation into
consideration we tend to realise that this learning model is incomplete and
that something is lost in its processes of actual transfer in the classroom. In
reality, the teaching learning process boils down to the teacher talking
predominantly and students mostly responding to what is said by the teacher.
What should be of concern to the curriculum specialists? They should be aware
of the fact that a school/college should be a place where students are not
afraid of asking questions, making mistakes, colleges/schools taking cognitive
risks and playing with ideas. Further should be more humane places where students
can explore and fulfill their Shuman potentials. Obviously, curriculum has to
play a vital role to actually realise this objective.
iii)
Phenomenology and curriculum
Phenomenologist
point out that the way we look at ourselves is crucial organisation for
understanding our behaviour and that we respond to pattern of stimuli and not
to an isolated stimulus. It emphasises that learning must be explained in terms
of the "wholeness" of the problem. Here you can draw a parallel with Cognitivism.
But what differentiates phenomenology from Cognitivism is that the former
stresses the affective and the latter the cognitive aspects of learning.
Because each individual has specific needs and interests related to his or her
self-fulfillment and self-realisations, there can't be a generally prescribed
humanistic curriculum. Humanistic learning may enhance the mental health of the
learners, harmonise personal feelings among students and teachers, and improve
various aspects of human awareness among students, teachers, and curriculum
specialists, yet its processes rely mainly on personal experiences and
subjective interpretations that leave them open to criticism. Therefore, there
is a great need to examine and understand what is relevant in humanistic
curricula. Please note that most textbook writers tend to be
cognition-oriented. However, one should propose that behaviourist components
are needed for planning and developing a sound curriculum. Humanistic components of teaching and learning
must also be incorporated into the curriculum. Let us say, therefore, that each
theory of learning has something significant to contribute towards explaining
various aspects of human behaviour and learning.
Basic
human needs and curriculum
Physical
well-being and health are generally recognised and frequently dealt with
through various programmes such as those on fitness, nutrition and health
problems. Mental health needs such as those pertaining to acceptance,
belonging, security and status have been widely studied but little emphasized
in the area of curriculum. In this sub-section, we shall touch upon just two
points which concern the topic under consideration:
i
Self-actualization
The
notion of self-actualization characterises individuals' need for self-
fulfillment in life by actualizing achieving their own potential. A curriculum
should therefore provide learning activities that allow students to identify
themselves with those things they can do well. It should also assist them to
succeed in other activities that are difficult for them. Learners are thus
helped to find personal meaning in the learning experience. Those responsible
for curriculum development must pay attention to the concept of
self-actualization. We all recognise the importance of school/ college and
community based goals for learners. Self- actualization on the other hand
includes satisfying the desire to know and understand in relation to personal
needs and interest. Moreover it has been noticed that when personal purposes
are ignored, learners seem to be less successful in meeting the set goals. If
curricular plans reflect a balance between institutional and personal needs,
the impact on both may be substantially enhanced.
ii)
Developmental tasks
We
can define a developmental task as a task which arises in relation to a certain
period in the life of an individual, success in which leads to his/her
happiness and to success in later tasks, while failure in it leads to
unhappiness in the individual and difficulties in subsequent tasks. This fact
is regarded as one of the most specific considerations in organizing tasks. The
needs of individuals are governed by the stage of development and age they have
reached, and also grow out of their need to respond to educators’ curriculum
societal expectations. The implication is that planners should understand
behaviours manifested by a learner indicating her/ his readiness and need to
deal with a particular developmental task. As we facilitate the learners'
success in these need tasks, their overall success can be ensured. Further, in
developing a curriculum, the development of an environment in which learners
feel genuinely secure should be ensured. When a curriculum develops such an
environment, learning takes place smoothly because the needs of students and
what has been provided by the curriculum are complementary to each other. In
our discussion of the psychological foundations, we dealt with the contribution
made by learning theories towards curriculum and also tried to see how much
more effective a curriculum may be framed if we consider the nature of basic
human need while forming it.
Types
of Curriculum
Unit # 3 (Types of Curriculum)
1.
Subject
Based Curriculum
2.
Teacher
Centered Curriculum
3.
Learner
Centered Curriculum
4.
Activity
Based Curriculum
1.Content -based
instruction (Subject based Curriculum)
CBI is a significant approach in language education (Brinton, Snow, & Wesche,
1989). CBI is designed to provide second-language learners instruction in
content and language.
Historically, the word content
has changed its meaning in language teaching. Content used to refer to the
methods of grammar-translation, audio-lingual methodology and vocabulary
or sound patterns in dialog form. Recently, content is interpreted as the use
of subject matter as a vehicle for second or foreign language
teaching/learning.
Benefits of
content based instruction
1. Learners are exposed to a considerable amount of language through
stimulating content. Learners explore interesting content & are engaged in
appropriate language-dependant activities. Learning language becomes automatic.
2. CBI supports contextualized learning; learners are taught useful
language that is embedded within relevant discourse contexts rather than as
isolated language fragments. Hence students make greater connections with the
language & what they already know.
3. Complex information is delivered through real life context for the
students to grasp well & leads to intrinsic motivation.
4. In CBI information is reiterated by strategically delivering information
at right time & situation compelling the students to learn out of passion.
5. Greater flexibility & adaptability in the curriculum can be deployed
as per the students interest.
Comparison
to other approaches
The CBI approach is comparable to English for Specific Purposes (ESP),
which usually is for vocational or occupational needs or English for Academic
Purposes (EAP). The goal of CBI is to prepare students to acquire the languages
while using the context of any subject matter so that students learn the
language by using it within the specific context. Rather than learning a
language out of context, it is learned within the context of a specific
academic subject.
As educators realized that in order to successfully complete an academic
task, second language (L2) learners have to master both English as a language
form (grammar,
vocabulary etc.) and how English is used in core
content classes, they started to implement various approaches such as Sheltered instruction and learning to learn
in CBI classes. Sheltered instruction is more of a teacher-driven approach that
puts the responsibility on the teachers' shoulders. This is the case by
stressing several pedagogical needs to help learners achieve their goals, such
as teachers having knowledge of the subject matter, knowledge of instructional
strategies to comprehensible and accessible content, knowledge of L2 learning
processes and the ability to assess cognitive, linguistic and social strategies
that students use to assure content comprehension while promoting English
academic development. Learning to learn is more of a student-centered
approach that stresses the importance of having the learners share this
responsibility with their teachers. Learning to learn emphasizes the
significant role that learning strategies play in the process of learning.
Motivating
students
Keeping students
motivated and interested are two important factors underlying content-based
instruction. Motivation and interest are crucial in supporting student
success with challenging, informative activities that support success and which
help the student learn complex skills (Grabe & Stoller, 1997). When
students are motivated and interested in the material they are learning, they make
greater connections between topics, elaborations with learning material and can
recall
information better (Alexander, Kulikowich, & Jetton, 1994: Krapp, Hidi,
& Renninger, 1992). In short, when a student is intrinsically motivated the student achieves
more. This in turn leads to a perception of success, of gaining positive
attributes which will continue a circular learning pattern of success and
interest. Krapp, Hidi and Renninger (1992) state that, "situational
interest, triggered by environmental factors, may evoke or contribute to the
development of long-lasting individual interests" (p. 18). Because
CBI is student centered, one of its goals is to keep students interested and
motivation high by generating stimulating content instruction and materials.
Active
student involvement
Because it falls under the more general rubric of communicative language teaching
(CLT), the CBI classroom is learner rather than teacher centered (Littlewood,
1981). In such classrooms, students learn through doing and are actively
engaged in the learning
process. They do not depend on the teacher to direct all learning or to be the
source of all information. Central to CBI is the belief that learning occurs
not only through exposure to the teacher's input, but also through peer
input and interactions. Accordingly, students assume active, social roles in
the classroom that involve interactive learning, negotiation,
information gathering and the co-construction of meaning (Lee and VanPatten,
1995). William Glasser's "control theory" exemplifies his attempts to
empower students and give them voice by focusing on their basic, human needs:
Unless students are given power, they may exert what little power they have to
thwart learning and achievement through inappropriate behavior and mediocrity.
Thus, it is important for teachers to give students voice, especially in the
current educational climate, which is dominated by standardization and testing
(Simmons and Page, 2010).[1]
Conclusion
The integration of language & content teaching is perceived by the
European Commission as "an excellent way of making progress in a foreign
language". CBI effectively increases learners' English language
proficiency & teaches them the skills necessary for the success in various
professions. With CBI, learners gradually acquire greater control of the
English language, enabling them to participate more fully in an increasingly
complex academic & social environment.
2. Teacher Centered Curriculum
In teacher-centered instruction:
1.
Students work to achieve
curricular objectives in order to become critical thinkers
2.
Students complete activities
designed by the teacher to achieve academic success
3.
Students respond to positive
expectations set by the teacher as they progress through activities
4.
Students are given extrinsic
motivators like grades and rewards in which motivates children to internalize
information and objectively demonstrates their understanding of concepts
5.
Student work is evaluated by the
teacher
A teacher-centered approach to
learning recognizes that children require achievable expectations and students
must have a solid foundation before learning a new concept. For example, in
order to learn multiplication properly, a student must understand repeated
addition and grouping. This process cannot be discovered by most students
without the direction of a teacher. Freestone (2012) states that traditional
teaching is based on one learning style, focuses on content and is driven by
the teacher. In contrast student-centered learning has several learning styles,
focuses on teamwork and is driven by the student's choice (Freestone, 2012).
Teacher centered instruction involves one way communication where students
passively listen to the teacher, who is viewed as the expert who imparts their
knowledge on the subject matter. Learning is measured and evaluated via tests
and exams. However evidence states that high marks on tests and exams do not
effectively translate into student acquisition of the material (Kraft, 1978).
Sample(2009) states that it is much easier for the student to hide ie.
disengage in traditional learning because they are not required to actively participant
3.
Learner Centered Curriculum
The difference between
learner-centered and curriculum-centered classrooms is philosophical.
Philosophy drives behavior, so when it comes to your teaching style, it is
important to have a deep understanding of your own belief system. Your view of
learning, students' roles, and teachers' roles determine the method by which
you teach. Use this article to place yourself on the pedagogical continuum by
considering:
- The types of activities you create
- The layout of your classroom
- The way students learn with you
- How you prepare for class
- How to make the most of your style
Pedagogy
Teachers who
adhere to learner-centered classrooms are influenced strongly by
constructivism. Constructivism holds that prior knowledge forms the foundation
by which new learning occurs (Piaget and Inhelder, 1969). Because people and
their experiences are different, they arrive at school with varying levels of
proficiency. A student is challenged according to his or her individual zone of
proximal development (Vygotsky, 1986). The difference between a student's
actual developmental level and his or her potential is the zone of proximal
development (ZPD). Good instruction matches each child's ZPD.
Teachers who
adhere to curriculum-centered classrooms are influenced greatly by the
standards-based movement. All students are taught the same body of knowledge.
Regardless of variations in developmental levels, all children are exposed to
the same content in the same time period. The objective is to ensure that there
will be no academic gaps in what is taught.
Learner-centered classrooms
Learner-centered
classrooms focus primarily on individual students' learning. The teacher's role
is to facilitate growth by utilizing the interests and unique needs of students
as a guide for meaningful instruction. Student-centered classrooms are by no means
characterized by a free-for-all.
These classrooms
are goal-based. Students' learning is judged by whether they achieve
predetermined, developmentally-oriented objectives. In essence, everyone can
earn an A by mastering the material. Because people learn best when they hear,
see, and manipulate variables, the method by which learning occurs is
oftentimes experiential.
Curriculum-centered
classrooms
Curriculum-centered
classrooms focus essentially on teaching the curriculum. The teacher determines
what ought to be taught, when, how, and in what time frame. The curriculum that
must be covered throughout the year takes precedence. These classes often
require strict discipline because children's interests are considered only
after content requirements are established.
In this
framework students are compared with one another. Student success is judged in
comparison with how well others do. A fixed standard of achievement is not
necessarily in place. In these classrooms grades resemble the familiar bell
curve.
Comparison of
the two different classrooms
In order to
visualize the two different types of classrooms, think about the structure of
each:
|
Learner-centered
|
Curriculum-centered
|
|
Child-centered
|
Teacher-centered
|
|
Constructivist-driven
|
Standards-driven
|
|
Progressive
|
Traditional
|
|
Information-age
model
|
Factory
model
|
|
Criterion-based
|
Norm
(bell curve) based
|
|
Depth
|
Breadth
|
|
Thematic
integration
|
Single
subjects
|
|
Process-
and product-oriented
|
Product-oriented
|
|
Block
scheduling
|
Short
time periods
|
|
Collaboration
|
Isolated
teaching and learning
|
|
Experiential
knowledge
|
Rote
knowledge
|
Many teachers fall somewhere in the middle of this continuum. They are neither strictly learner-centered nor only curriculum-centered. Teachers use what works for them based on their fundamental belief structures.
How do you prepare?
The way in which
teachers spend their time in and out of class can reveal much about their
teaching philosophies. A learner-centered teacher makes time to collaborate
with others and problem solve as challenges evolve. This teacher spends his or
her day researching new ideas and learning key concepts that students must
acquire to gain competence. Evaluation is ongoing and done mostly in the
context of students' learning.
A
curriculum-centered teacher works mostly by himself or herself when he or she
is teaching or developing lessons. When teachers do collaborate in team
meetings, all involved agree to teach the same lessons. These assignments
usually result in a lot of correcting at the end of the day.
How to work within the current system
If you are
basically a curriculum-centered teacher, the system is already set up for you –
no worries! If you are essentially a learner-centered teacher, you need to
enlist support for your teaching style. Effective ways of gaining credibility
include the following:
A.
Initiate collaboration with other
educational professionals.
B.
Locate and share research that
documents successful learner-centered classrooms (see References below).
C.
Invite fellow teachers to attend
conferences and workshops geared toward learner-centered topics.
D.
Ask colleagues to discuss your
philosophy of education (and theirs) so that you both may gain a clearer
understanding of your principles. At that point, it becomes important to do
what you say you do and make no excuses. Some people talk about running a
child-centered classroom but actually have not broken from the model they were
exposed to as students.
E.
Finally, it is imperative to gain
the respect of your students' parents at Back-to-School night, Open House,
conferences, and through regular newsletters.
4. Activity Based Curriculum
Demonstrating activity-based
learning in the classroom
Activity-based
learning
ABL describes a range of pedagogical approaches to teaching. Its core
premises include the requirement that learning should be based on doing some
hands-on experiments and activities. The idea of activity-based learning is
rooted in the common notion that children are active learners rather than
passive recipients of information. If child is provided the opportunity to
explore by their own and provided an optimum learning environment then the
learning becomes joyful and long-lasting.
History of
activity-based learning
Activity-based learning started sometime in 1944 around World War II when a
British man David Horsburgh came to India and finally decided to settle down
there. He was an innovative thinker and charismatic leader.[1]
He started teaching in Rishi Valley School. He joined the British
Council and worked in Chennai and Bangalore for many years. After his voluntary retirement,
he located a 7-acre (28,000 m2) site in Kolar District and
opened his school, Neel Bagh. Neel Bagh was based on an innovative idea of
Horsburgh and known for its creative methods in teaching well-planned learning
materials. With his wife Doreen and his son Nicholas, Horsburgh developed a
diverse curriculum, which included music, carpentry, sewing, masonry,
gardening, as well as the usual school subjects, English, mathematics,
Sanskrit, and Telugu. These pedagogic materials were systematically planned,
with sketches and drawings and an occasional touch of humour. Later Horsburgh
created a magnificent library in Neel Baugh that was accessible to teachers and
students. This initiative of Horsburgh was later proved to be one of the
pioneer and milestones in ABL. In modern time ABL is the method of education followed
in the Corporation schools of Chennai, from 2003, as an effort to provide
special schools for children who had been freed from bonded
labour.
States and
Organizations initiative on activity-based learning
The ABL in its contemporary form was first undertaken by the Chennai
Corporation in 13 schools on a trial basis in 2003, has been adopted by all the
270 primary schools in the district. First designed and tested by the Rishi Valley School in Andhra
Pradesh in the '90s, the Activity-Based Learning system has been
successfully implemented in several Indian states, including Karnataka, Kerala, Uttar
Pradesh, Gujarat
and Madhya
Pradesh. In Tamil Nadu, UNICEF supported the Chennai Corporation to introduce the ABL
methods in the Government schools. There are many organizations which cultivate
and follow the principles of activity-based learning. Digantar Siksha evam Khelkud Samiti in Rajasthan, Sumavanam Village
School in Andhra Pradesh and Vikasana
School in Karnataka
are the places which were established on the principles of activity-based
learning.
Philosophy
Let the child explore and learn
The philosophy of ABL finds its antecedents in the common notion that
learning can be best when it is initiated by the surrounding environment and
motivated by providing optimum opportunities to learn. A fearless and freedom
to express environment always adds to best learning outcomes.
Characteristics
of activity-based learning
The key feature of the ABL method is that it uses child-friendly
educational aids to foster self-learning and allows a child to study according to
his/her aptitude
and skill. Under
the system, the curriculum is divided into small units, each a group of Self
Learning Materials (SLM) comprising attractively designed study cards for English,
Tamil,
math, science and
Social Science. When a child finishes a group of cards, he completes one
"milestone". Activities in each milestone include games, rhymes,
drawing, and songs to teach a letter or a word, form a sentence, do math and
science, or understand a concept. The child takes up an Exam Card only after
completing all the milestones in a subject. If a child is absent one day,
he/she continues from where he/she left unlike in the old system where the
children had to learn on their own what they missed out on.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Curriculum
Design
Unit # 4 (Curriculum Design)
1. Situation Analysis
2. Formation of Objectives
3. Selection and
Organization of Context
4. Selection of
Appropriate Methods
5. Assessment of Student
Achievements
In practice, there is overlap and interplay between
the processes we are calling Integrating technology into the “curriculum
design” and “curriculum delivery”... For example, the educational rationale for
design decisions should be understood by staff involved in the delivery
process, and curriculum lifecycle ideally by learners too, while evidence from
learners’ engagement with the curriculum JISC, 2008 should inform future
iterations of design.’
1. Situational Analysis in Language
Teaching Curriculum Development
Introduction
Curriculum is changing in line
with the challenging of contemporary era. Curriculum as a set of education
which should be prepared by considering some factors that influence the
curriculum itself. Nowadays, school-based curriculum (KTSP) has been
implemented by state schools in Indonesia. KTSP is an overflow of
responsibility for schools (teachers) to plan, to develop, to implement, to
evaluate, and to redevelop curriculum which they use. As what have been
mentioned above, there are some situational factors that influence curriculum development,
thus considering these situational
factors, it is vital for the schools or teachers, particularly, as what
becomes the interest of the writer, for the English teachers who are involved
in the process of curriculum development, to pay close and thorough attention
on the betterment of English subject curriculum. Related to KTSP, this topic is
relatively crucial because teachers or curriculum developers need to know
factors that influence their product, namely, in this case is curriculum. Those
factors are societal factors, project factors, institutional factors, teacher
factors, learner factors, and implementation factors. By referring to related
references, this article provides comprehensible outlook on the issues of
situational factors related to curriculum.
Societal Factors
Since English becomes
international language, English learning has been part of education curriculum
in every country in the world. English in some countries has status as second
language and some as foreign language. Such status makes those countries treat
English learning differently in terms of the curriculum. Regardless of this
distinguishable status of English as second or foreign language, in terms of
the English learning curriculum, societal factors which affect the curriculum
need to be put into account. Countries are different in terms of the role of
foreign languages in the community, their status in the curriculum, educational
traditions and experience in language teaching, and the expectations that
members of the community have for language and learning. Some of societal
factors that affect curriculum development are:
a. The policies of language teaching which exist
in the society created by the curriculum developers should consider the
policies of language teaching, whether it is from national law or autonomous
educational institution’s law.
b. The underlying reasons for the project and who
support it: usually curriculum development is supported by government and
because of it; the content of curriculum will be directed in line with the
political views of the government. It is different from school based curriculum
development, which is developed independently by schools or teachers.
c. Language teaching experience and traditions:
experience and tradition of language teaching also affect the curriculum
development. If a country has failed in implementing a curriculum, then they
will change their strategy for the next curriculum.
d. Society’ views: society’s views also affect
the curriculum, because the curriculum will be implemented to their children,
even to them. Therefore, their views on the curriculum should be considered.
e. Teachers’ views: Because the curriculum will
be implemented by teachers, their views on the curriculum are very important.
Sometimes teachers complain the curriculum concept, because they deal with some
difficulties in implementing it. It is possible that the problems are because
the inappropriateness of the curriculum content and their experiences.
f. Employers’ and business community’s views: one
of the education curriculum’s goals is how to produce educated human that has
industrial prospects. Thus, employers’ and business community’s views are
important to be considered.
g. Resources: available human resources
(teachers’ ability) should be considered, because the curriculum will be
implemented successfully by qualified teachers. Moreover, natural resources and
media are also vital to be considered because those support the implementation
of the curriculum.
Societal factors affect the
curriculum development; one of the questions is; what does society want?
(White, 2002). This short question has a deep meaning; one reason is curriculum
is created for educating pupils. The other question may appear is whether the
curriculum is suitable with the society? Values, culture or society’s believes
are also a part of the societal factors that affect the curriculum development.
Every country or even regency has different cultures and values that underlie
the paradigm of people. For the example: One day Mr. Amir teaches his students
English (suppose that the students are people in a rural area in Indonesia) by
telling a story about Santa Claus (Sinterklas), it is very much possible that
the students will confuse because they are not familiar with such figure. Mr.
Amir explains that Santa’s carriage flies on the sky. It is so very possible
that the students think that it is impossible. This is happened because Mr.
Amir teaches them without considering the cultural background of the students.
It will be different (and better) if Mr. Amir changes the story. He can use
local story, such as Gatot Kaca, to replace the unfamiliar figure of Santa.
This gives us understanding that curriculum construction should consider the
values, culture and society’s believes, where the curriculum will be
implemented.
Project Factors
A curriculum development process
is also affected by some factors related to the project itself. As what we know
that curriculum is produced by team and not by person. A team always consists
of some persons and every person may have differences each other. Project
factors means the factors exist when the curriculum is being produced. The
developers’ commitment, time, resources needed, personnel are variables which
have significant impacts on the project.
To identify the project factors which affect a curriculum development, Richard mentions some questions as follow:
To identify the project factors which affect a curriculum development, Richard mentions some questions as follow:
a. Who constitutes the project group and how are
they selected? The curriculum developer can be teachers or administrators. It
is depended on the model they use. Who select and who are selected in this
project are the first thing must be considered. The developer should be
selected by considering the skill, expertise, experienced, and commitment. The
members should respect to one another. They should not be selected by emotional
relationship or based on friendship factors. By considering this the developer
will do the project full of responsibility.
b. How are goals and procedures determined? The
goals and procedures should be determined based on the general consensus among
the developers, of course it also consider some related factors.
c. Who reviews the progress of the project and
the performance of the team? The project and the worker of the project should
be reviewed by someone who is really the expert on this field. Therefore the
project progress can be observed accurately.
d. What resources do they have available and what
budget to acquire needed resources? Curriculum development should consider
human resources, natural resources, and financial resources that affect the
planning and firstly in implementing the developed curriculum.
It is obviously seen that project factors which
affect the curriculum development are concentrated to the developer and who
selected them, the importance of deliberation in determining the goals and
procedures, the supervisor or the reviewer of the project progress and
resources acquired. All decision taken must through a deliberation process.
Related to decisions, the developer should pay attention in determining the
setting aims and objective of the curriculum, the content and the strategies in
implementing the curriculum (Miller and Seller, 1985:12). The following example
will give us a view how important the togetherness of the curriculum
developers. An education institute decides to develop some major elements of
the curriculum. Mr. Sofyan (the head of the project) is the head master of the
institute. He is the oldest (in terms of age) among them and because of his
position and his age, the other members are reluctant to give any objection or
idea. The members always agree on what Mr. Sofyan has been proposed. In the
action time, the teachers who use the curriculum deal with some difficulties
and the curriculum is not effective. This gives us a view that togetherness in
making decision is a vital aspect in curriculum development, which the views of
all members (by considering all related aspects) are distributed and support
the project successfulness.
Institutional Factors
Initially, people learn first
language in their daily life, but foreign language is typically learnt in an
institution such as school, university or language institution (language
course), as what Dewey stated that school (institution) is a miniature of
society (Lie, 2004:15) and every society has culture. Every member in the
institution has their own character and the interactions among them create an
environment, even culture. As Morris (in Richard, 2001:97) stated “Schools are
organizations and they develop a culture…” by considering this, it can be
assumed that every institution has different culture.Curriculum or set of
education planning is produced in an institution which will use the curriculum.
Related to the KTSP, every school is given authority (responsibility) to
produce their curriculum based on several factors, and one of the factors which
affect it is institutional factors. Everything related to the institutional
existence affects the curriculum, for illustration “jelly form represents the
place it produced”. A curriculum form will represent the institution
characteristics. Some institutions use textbooks as the core of the curriculum
and all teachers must use the prescribed texts, some other institution’s
teachers use course guidelines. These are examples how the institutions are
different.
Again, Richard use questions to show how these
factors should be considered:
a. What leadership is available within the institution to support change and to help teachers cope with the change? Is it dictatorial or democratic? If the leadership is democratic, the teacher will get more opportunities to take part in the curriculum development process, not only in doing what is ordered but also considering what have to be done with the development of the curriculum.
a. What leadership is available within the institution to support change and to help teachers cope with the change? Is it dictatorial or democratic? If the leadership is democratic, the teacher will get more opportunities to take part in the curriculum development process, not only in doing what is ordered but also considering what have to be done with the development of the curriculum.
b. What is the role of textbooks and other
materials? Textbooks sometimes become the core of the curriculum. In language
courses, for example EF (English First) and LPIA (Lembaga pendidikan dan
keterampilan Indonesia-Amerika) they use different textbooks. Therefore their
curriculum will be different, although the goal of the curriculum is similar.
The teachers should be familiar with the textbooks or materials or course
guidelines used in the institution. If they are not, it will be a problem in
implementing the curriculum as what is scheduled.
c. What administrative support is available
within the institution and how is the communicational understanding between the
teachers and the administration? Teachers and administration should be in a
line. The communication between them should create a comfortable environment.
d. How committed is the institution in attaining
excellence? Again, commitment of the teachers or institution in attaining
excellent achievement is demanded. The motivation and commitment, by having the
physical resources and human resources support of the institution, can attain
an excellent predicate and a good reputation for delivering successful program.
An institution is a collection of teachers,
groups and departments. Sometimes they function in unison, sometimes with
different components functioning independently and even sometimes they function
in a confrontation way. Teachers, supervisors and also administrative should
work cooperatively. For example: an English course wants to develop its
curriculum. Last week they had teacher recruitment. When they want to decide
what and how many textbooks will be used in teaching and somehow the new teachers
deal with uncertainties because they are not familiar yet with the textbooks,
the new teachers should have trainings or guidelines on how to employ the
respected textbooks.
Beside the human side of the institution, the physical aspects of the institution are also important. The curriculum should be appropriate with the resources which the institutions have. For example: a school is developing an English curriculum and they want to utilize CALL (computer assisted in language learning) but the school does not have computer lab, of course this is a problem. Again, the curriculum should be compatible with the resource which the school or institution has.
Beside the human side of the institution, the physical aspects of the institution are also important. The curriculum should be appropriate with the resources which the institutions have. For example: a school is developing an English curriculum and they want to utilize CALL (computer assisted in language learning) but the school does not have computer lab, of course this is a problem. Again, the curriculum should be compatible with the resource which the school or institution has.
Teacher factors
Other factor which affects the
curriculum development is teachers in which the curriculum will depend on.
Institution or school consists of administrator and teachers. In a school,
there are teachers having different characteristics, language proficiency,
teaching experience, skill and expertise, morale and motivation, teaching
style, beliefs and principle.
Some teachers perhaps do not object to the change of curriculum because they are well trained before or rich of experience, but there is uncertainty for some untrained teachers.
Some teachers who have time for teaching will not object when they get additional class but some busy teachers perhaps object because it will be heavy loads for them.
The following questions help us to identify teachers’ factors which affect the curriculum development process:
Some teachers perhaps do not object to the change of curriculum because they are well trained before or rich of experience, but there is uncertainty for some untrained teachers.
Some teachers who have time for teaching will not object when they get additional class but some busy teachers perhaps object because it will be heavy loads for them.
The following questions help us to identify teachers’ factors which affect the curriculum development process:
a. What kinds of teachers currently teach in the
target school or institution? Teachers’ aspects such as their background,
training, experience, moral and motivation should be considered.
b. How proficient are they in English? The
English teacher should have good proficiency in English so they can master the
materials in the English textbooks or other materials resource.
c. What resources and methods do the teachers
use? In teaching, teachers may use prescribed textbooks or other materials
resources; also teachers make their own materials. These aspects should be
considered to match the curriculum planning, whether they should change their
resources or the curriculum is developed in line with the current textbooks
used by teachers. Teachers’ teaching methods also should be considered.
d. What are the benefits for the teachers? Some
teachers are motivated by professional responsibility, but some teachers may be
motivated by economic purpose. Therefore, the offer should be clear for them.
Some institutions which disregard teachers who
play the important role in the curriculum practice often develop a curriculum
without involving teachers. They also do not respect the teachers’ factors that
have impact to the curriculum. After curriculum is developed or changed, the
teachers are given the new curriculum. It is possible that the curriculum is
ready, but the teachers are not. Some experienced teachers can make adaptation
soon, but untrained or inexperienced teachers may need longer time. They
perhaps do not master the materials or textbooks used in the curriculum. Some
teachers may complain because they do not have more time and lesson loads which
are very heavy for them (if the curriculum also changes the lesson load). The
students or learners may ignore these problems without realizing that they are “sacrificed”.
However, this cannot be happened, because the institution or school must be
responsible on the students or learners future.
Learner Factors
Learners or students
achievements are indicators whether the curriculum is successful or not,
because to the students is the curriculum implemented. Based on the students’
success, the curriculum is evaluated. Therefore, it is essential to collect as
much information as possible about students before the project begins. There
are some kinds of curriculum, say teacher-centered and student-centered
curriculum. Most curriculums used in Indonesia is student-centered curriculum.
In developing this curriculum, the developer (whether it is administrative
model or grass-root model) should considers students’ backgrounds,
expectations, beliefs, and preferred learning styles. These questions will give
us a view about the learner or student factors:
a. What are the learners’ past language learning
experiences? Teachers should consider learners’ experience in learning language
before they learn English. Some learners or students perhaps study other
foreign language. This may affect their learning because languages are
different in some aspects (in terms of structure, grammar or pronunciation).
b. How motivated are the learners to learn
English? Learners may be motivated by integrative motivation or instrumental
motivation. The teacher may treat different motivation of the student with
different method. The learners’ motivation is closely related to their
expectation and by considering these the teacher can decide what content they
prefer.
c. Are they homogeneous or heterogeneous group?
Sometimes different cultures become hinder in the class, thus the interaction
in the class will not be good. As what Yule stated that linguistics interaction
needs good social interaction (Yule, 1996) the teacher can use cooperative
learning model to hold the heterogeneous class.
d. What type of learning approach do they favor?
If the students are heterogeneous, the teacher can divide the students in
groups because they need to know their friends’ culture or something else. If
they are active students, the learning approach should be student-focused.
e. How much time can they be expected to put into
the program? Students should be considered from the time aspect, for example
young learner should not be taught in two hours for a subject. It will bore
students and of course they cannot concentrate if they are tired.
f. What learning resources will they typically
have access to? The curriculum developer should consider what resources are the
learner can access to, if the learners are realized not qualified in computer
yet, the curriculum should not be contained with CALL. sAn institution’s
principal just comes back from Australia and he wants to implement what he has
seen overseas. He does not consider the learners’ ability that is very
different from Australian. He decides to change the curriculum and utilize
CALL, however the learners are not able to operate internet. Finally, the
learners do not pass of examination. The resources the learners usually use are
textbooks and some printed lesson material, when they are requested to find
journals and articles (and this will be assessed) by browsing in the internet,
and the teacher asks them to search by using a search engine named Google, they
might ask to each other, what is Google? This is really a problem.
Adoption Factors
Adoption factors are factors
which exist when the curriculum is adopted by teachers. It is closely related
to the teachers factors explained above. When the curriculum is offered to the
teachers, by considering the changes in the curriculum, some teachers may be
ready to accept the changes while others might resist it, because the changes
in the curriculum perhaps affect the teachers’ beliefs and their principles in
teaching students. Some following questions should be considered:
a. What advantages does the curriculum change
offer? When the curriculum is developed or changed, the developer should match
the changes in the curriculum and the teachers’ principles, whether it gives
positive contribution or not.
b. How compatible is it? The curriculum should be
developed by considering the consistency between the changes and the existing
beliefs, organization attitudes, and beliefs which exist in the school or
institution. The developers also consider the balance of the level of
difficulties and teachers / students ability to understand it. The curriculum
should be tested before it is applied.
c. Have the features and benefits of the
innovation been clearly communicated to teachers and institution? If the model
used is administrative model, the curriculum should be clearly communicated to
the teachers in order to avoid the teachers misunderstanding on the curriculum.
By considering these, the curriculum will get reviews for new information,
critiques or suggestions from the teachers before it is applied. Teachers are
the ones who know their students; therefore, teachers can give more important
information about students. Thereby, the curriculum can be decided whether it
can be applied in the classroom or it cannot. Profiling the factors identified
in the situational analysis
Situational analysis is important to identify the factors which have positive and negative impact to the curriculum planning and its implementation. The factors are sometimes known as SWOT analysis; S=Strengths (the factors have positive impact to the curriculum), W=Weakness (the factors have negative impact to the curriculum), O=Opportunities (the factors give opportunities for improvement), and T=Threats (the factors should be reduced). Hence, situational analysis serves to help identifying potential obstacles to implement a curriculum project and factors that are needed to be considered when planning the parameters of a project.
Situational analysis is important to identify the factors which have positive and negative impact to the curriculum planning and its implementation. The factors are sometimes known as SWOT analysis; S=Strengths (the factors have positive impact to the curriculum), W=Weakness (the factors have negative impact to the curriculum), O=Opportunities (the factors give opportunities for improvement), and T=Threats (the factors should be reduced). Hence, situational analysis serves to help identifying potential obstacles to implement a curriculum project and factors that are needed to be considered when planning the parameters of a project.
2.
Formation of Objectives
General Criteria for the Selection
of Instructional Materials
The following criteria will be used in the selection
of all instructional materials.
- Materials
will be consistent with the stated mission, vision and goals of the school
district and of Riverside Elementary.
- Materials
will support the prescribed curriculum and learning objectives. The major
emphasis of collection development is to provide materials to meet
curricular needs and enrich the curriculum.
- Materials
will be appropriate for the developmental level of intended users.
Materials purchased for student use will be suitable for the age, social
and emotional development of the students for whom the materials are
intended.
- Materials
will be accurate and meet high standards of quality in factual content and
presentation.
- Materials
will be assessed for clarity and currency of information relative to
content and purpose.
- Physical
format, medium and appearance will suit the intended use and meet high standards
of quality.
- Materials
will have a high degree of user appeal.
- A variety
of physical formats will be made available in subject areas to meet the
needs and learning styles of a diverse student population.
- Materials
will have informational, literary, aesthetic, social or historic value.
- Materials
may be chosen to promote reading for pleasure and lifelong learning.
- Materials
will be produced by competent and qualified authors, publishers or
producers.
- Materials
will avoid gender, age, ethnic and other stereotyping.
- Materials
will represent diverse points of view.
- Suitable
instructional materials will be made accessible to students of varied
abilities.
- Materials
will be purchased and used in compliance with current copyright laws.
- Materials
will be cost effective relative to projected use, value to the program and
durability.
3.
Selection and Organization of Context
Introduction
As
with most activities in education, curriculum development is not carried out in
isolation from other activities, but is part of an iterative planning,
development, implementation and review cycle. It should be noted that the term
can be used to describe development at different levels: large-scale curricular
reform (e.g. the national review of undergraduate medical education which was
carried out by all UK medical schools between 1993 – 1996 or the introduction
of the Foundation curriculum), modification of existing programmes or making
simple changes to one’s own lessons. However, the same principles apply in a
range of contexts and to both large and small-scale activities. Some forms of educational development include
curriculum development although usually educational development refers to any
kind of development activity in an educational context.
Curriculum
development
The
word curriculum derives from the
Latin currere meaning ‘to run’.
This implies that one of the functions of a curriculum is to provide a template
or design which enables learning to take place. Curricula usually define the
learning that is expected to take place during a course or programme of
study in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes, they should specify
the main teaching, learning and assessment methods and provide an indication of
the learning resources required to support the effective delivery of the
course. A curriculum is more than a syllabus. A syllabus describes the content of a programme and can be seen as
one part of a curriculum. Most curricula are not developed from scratch and all
operate within organizational and societal constraints.
The
curriculum that is written and published, for example as course documentation,
is the official or formal curriculum. The aim of
educational development is to ensure that the official curriculum is delivered
as the functional curriculum and there is not a mismatch as development turns into
implementation. The official curriculum can also be distinguished from the hidden, unofficial or counter curriculum. Paul Willis’ work
on the sociology of schooling for example describes how the informal pupil
group comprising working class ‘lads’ has its own sub-culture and counter
curriculum which involves ‘mucking about’, ‘doing nothing’ and ‘having a laugh’
(Willis, 1977, pp62-63). The hidden curriculum describes those aspects of the
educational environment and student learning (such as values and expectations
that students acquire as a result of going through an educational process)
which are not formally or explicitly stated but which relate to the culture and
ethos of an organisation. This highlights that the process of learning is as important as its product and as teachers we need to be aware of both the formal and
informal factors which impact on learning.
If
you are interested in the anthropological or sociological aspects which
underpin learning in medical education then you may find reading two very
different accounts of medical school training fascinating. The classic study of
medical undergraduates is Howard Becker et al’s Boys in White (1961) and for a more recent study Simon
Sinclair’s book Making doctors: an
institutional apprenticeship (1997) is an account of undergraduate
medical education at University College London (UCL). It covers aspects of
‘official’ and ‘unofficial’ life in medical school, focusing on the acquisition
and transmission of knowledge, power and hierarchy, gender and race issues and
how the students deal with the curriculum and their various clinical
experiences
Learning
activity and reflection
Thinking about
your undergraduate education, can you list some examples of the formal
curriculum?
And some
examples of the hidden or unofficial curriculum?
Are there any
instances where these may conflict and impact on learning?
My thoughts
Some examples of
the formal curriculum might include the prospectus, course guides, lecturers’
handouts etc. And of the unofficial
curriculum might include Fresher’ week, rugby and other sports clubs and
events, treating female or Asian students differently, the different ‘tribes
and territories’ found in different specialties e.g. surgery or general
practice
Conflicts and impact on learning
might include examples where drinking the night before means that students come
into teaching sessions late (or not at all in the morning), some teachers
regularly time the first teaching session at 0930 because they know that if
they start teaching earlier, then few students will be there.
4.
Selection of Appropriate Methods
Technology-enabled formative and
summative assessment can ensure prompt feedback and promote active learning.
Technology can record assessment outcomes for internal course reelection,
evaluation and review. Aspects of learning stored electronically by individual
learners can be transferred into e-portfolios, transcripts and records of
achievement and made available to admissions tutors and employers.
The importance of selecting appropriate
instructional methods
In 'The Systems Approach to Curriculum
Development', we looked in detail at a simple algorithm that can be used as the
basis of virtually all course and curriculum design. This is given again and in
Figure 1 clearly shows the importance of selecting appropriate
teaching/learning methods in the overall process.
 |
Figure 1. A simplified systems approach
to course and curriculum design
Such a process should begin with an
examination of the characteristics of the target population and the topic area
to be covered, followed by an analysis of the existing skills of the students.
The next key step should be the formulation of a clear set of educational aims
and outcomes - preferably couched in behavioural terms so that both teachers
and students are clear as to what the latter are expected to achieve. Once this
has been done, thought should be given as to what particular mix of
teaching/learning methods would be most suitable for helping the students to
achieve these various aims. Clearly, the particular methods that are eventually
chosen will depend on a large number of factors, including the detailed nature
of the outcomes in question, any institutional constraints, any constraints
imposed by an award-giving body, student characteristics, and the background
and preferences of the teaching staff involved. They should, however, be chosen
in a systematic way, something that can best be done by looking at each
learning outcome (or related set of learning outcomes) in turn, and asking the
following two questions:
(i) What possible methods could be used
to help the students to achieve this particular learning outcome or set of
learning outcomes?
(ii) Which of these methods would
probably be most appropriate in the context of the particular course or
curriculum being considered?
Curriculum Development in Pakistan
Unit # 5 (Curriculum Development in Pakistan)
1. Problems of Curriculum
Development in Pakistan and suggestions for its improvement
1. Problems of Curriculum Development in Pakistan
and suggestions for its improvement
Money, energy, and time are all
being invested in an effort to better prepare students in a constantly growing,
competitive environment. However several obvious problems still exist within
the current educational framework: specifically, the choosing and evaluation of
course books continues to be fraught with confusion.
There
has been inadequate collaboration among teachers, administrators, parents, and
students. Everyone involved in the learning and teaching process should be
allowed to contribute in the decision making phase.
Characteristics
of curriculum
The curriculum must have as many of the following
desired characteristics as possible:4
1. Adaptive to local environment:
Curricula must be geared towards addressing local trends and factors that
influence agricultural development agenda.
2. Demand driven: Curricula and teaching
programs must be relevant to the clientele needs and employment demands of the
agricultural sector.
3. Innovative and interactive: It must
make use of innovative and interactive tools, methods and approaches to deliver
the content of education that maximizes the “learning” of intended skills, knowledge
and practices.
4. Dynamic: The curriculum must not be a
fixed and authoritative structure which contains the organized content for
learning. It should change and evolve as the clientele needs and employment
demands change.
5. Quality: The curriculum must meet
accreditation standards of quality in order to produce trained human resources
with qualifications that are accepted by prospective employers.
6. Cutting-edge: The curricula must keep
pace with and incorporate new advances in science and technology to prepare
students for taking up or creating new employment opportunities.
7. Versatile (meet needs of diverse
groups): The curricula and training programs in agriculture must not only meet
the learning requirements of fresh trainees/graduates seeking employment for
the first time but also of unemployed and under-employed people, dismissed
public-sector workers, and agricultural professionals seeking career changes
and advancement. It should also benefit and meet the needs of both the gender.
It must be flexible to allow students to create unique interdisciplinary majors
to meet individualized curriculum program needs.
8. Focused on imparting skills and
abilities that are transferable to a wide range of occupations: The curricula
must focus less on specific technical knowledge that will quickly become
obsolete and more on processes and evolutionary/ market driven, skill building,
cost effective, multi disciplinary
Curricular
Reform
The main thrust of our recommendations
is to focus on the curriculum system rather than individual curriculums or
courses. We recommend a two-pronged strategy: first, a shift to a broad-based
general education system; and second, the establishment of mechanisms to raise
the quality of scientific and technical education. We believe that it is not the purpose of the
curriculum system to guess the next growth area. We believe that in the
Pakistani context, the best approach is to initiate a shift from the current
system of early specialization towards a modern system of general education.
Instead of forcing high-school students to choose between the arts and the
sciences, and college students to select their fields of specialization soon
after enrolment, the general education system offers a broad-based curriculum
in high school and college, and defers specialized education until the last two
years of college or later. We recommend initiating a formal process of
discussion on the pros and cons of introducing general education with an eye
towards gradually replacing the 2-year Bachelor’s degree with a 4-year degree.
The practical steps in moving in this direction
would include:
1. A decision
is made in principle to switch to general education.
2. An implementation
committee is constituted, consisting of college and university faculties and
administrations, as well as academic experts, government officials, publishing
houses, industry representatives, and students.
3. The
committee sets up subcommittees on the core curriculum, and those that examine
the implications of the shift on financial, testing/examinations system,
recruitment, and institutional dimensions.
4. The
committee provides recommendations on the core curriculum, financial
allocations, fundraising mechanisms, student selection, faculty recruitment,
revamping of the examination system and institutional cooperation and
sharing.
We recommend following in terms of higher scientific
education:
1. Strategies
for scientific development: Explicit linkages should be introduced amongst
institutions of research and education, and between these and industry.
2. Local,
regional and international cooperation: One or more global networks of
expatriate Pakistani scientists – including existing groups – should be
established and actively nurtured. Universities should use these networks
proactively to upgrade their
12. Educational methods and resources. These
external groups should be utilized in organizing conferences, creating
information exchange systems, and facilitating exchange programs.
3. Salaries
and compensation of faculty need to be improved so that the best-qualified
people can be attracted away from jobs in the private sector or government
service.
4. Physical
and technical resources: The aim of the reform process is to lower the
acquisition cost for universities of technical equipment and other physical
resources. The recommendations include the establishment of mechanisms that
enable institutions to pool their demands (thus lowering costs), identify
sources of second-hand (but close to state-of-the art) equipment, use Internet
resources to supplement books and printed materials; and import necessary items
at low import tariffs.
Instructional
Objectives
Unit # 6 (Instructional Objectives)
1. Goals, Aims and
Objectives
2. Importance of
Learning Outcomes
3. Identifying
Behavioral Objectives
4. Taxonomy of
educational Objectives
1. Goals, Aims and Objectives
Aims
As
mentioned in the above section, the clarification of purpose involves
identifying a philosophy (refer to Five Philosophies). The philosophy serves as
the basis for clarifying the values and beliefs about the purpose, goals, and
objectives of a program. Only by developing a philosophy can curriculum planning
progress.
A
popular method of creating a philosophic statement is to have the individuals
involved in the curriculum process develop their own belief statements. The
statements will reflect the various beliefs about the purpose of education and
values. The curriculum specialist must not only know their own values, but
those of others involved with program development, such as the dean,
preceptors, program clinical educators, and O.R. manager. The philosophic
statement that is created will most likely show that the program exists to meet
the needs and interests of students.
Goals
Goals
are derived from the philosophical viewpoints of the school, department (in the
case of surgical technology programs, the Allied Health Department), and
community. The goals are statements pertaining to the outcomes of education.
Goals, like the statement of philosophy, are a foundation of curriculum
planning.
Goals
will range from broad statements to specific. For example, the mission
statement of a college, which usually serves as the philosophical statement,
will be supported by the broad educational goals. The goals of a surgical
technology program will be more specific, but should still relate to
the mission statement and goals of the college.
Objectives
Objectives
also guide the long-range curriculum planning process. They are the operational
statements that describe the desired outcomes of the program. The objectives
are derived from the goal statements and are the action statements used to
translate the goals into a working educational program.
Objectives can
be generally classified in one of three levels. Refer to the table to
distinguish among the three types.
|
Table 1: Three
Levels of Objectives Level
|
Type
|
Formulated
|
Highlight
|
|
Level I
|
Broad objectives
|
Created at the
college board level
|
Revision
rarely occurs
|
|
Level II
|
General
statements, but more specific
|
Created at the
department or program level
|
Usually an
outline that shows a process to accomplish the Level I objectives
|
|
Level III
|
Behaviorally
stated objectives
|
Created by
program instructor or instructors
|
Describe the
desired outcomes, what will be used to assess the outcomes, & expected
level of performance
|
The student will:
1. Recognize
problems and present original solutions based upon professional sources;
2. Recognize
trends and modernize current theory and practice to integrate new ideas;
3. Recognize
issues confronting the profession and suggest ways to profit from these
ideas;
4. Recognize the contributions made to the profession from
individuals at different levels and use these resources to strengthen the
school environment;
5. Contribute
new knowledge to the profession on narrow curriculum topics;
6. Disseminate
new knowledge to the profession from original work;
7. Examine
how school curricula has been developed through history to address diverse
cultures; and
8. Contribute
ideas for enhancing curriculum by including ideas of multicultural education.
2
Importance of Learning Outcomes
3. Identifying
Behavioral Objectives
4. Taxonomy
of educational Objectives
Aims,
Goals and Objectives
For
most people the terms aims, objectives and goals are used interchangeably. They
are related, but different, and help you to differentiate between expectations
for the future and plan them effectively. In the field of education, the
differences among these terms are considered important as it gives teachers a
way to separate lesson plans into actionable sequences.
Aims
o Aim is a broad term used to describe a future expectation in its
most vague form. An aim usually includes the words, learn, know, understand or
appreciate. It is not measurable in a direct sense, but is meant to outline and
organize your intentions. An aim may include the outcome for an entire subject
or program and at times incorporates philosophical elements.
Goals
o Goals are defined as a subset of your aims. These are often a
bit more defined but lack specific measurability. Whereas an aim may refer to a
very broad category such as improving writing skills, a goal will address a
specific aspect of writing skills. These are statements that have a purpose and
outcome in mind.
Objectives
o Determining an objective is pinpointing what it might take to
achieve your goal. Objectives are measurable as they deal with a very specific
outcome. Objectives can be written in actionable steps that are meant to
realize a goal and in the long run, the aim. In education, objectives are
usually split into behavioral and non-behavioral. A behavioral objective
concerns proficiency in a specific area. A non-behavioral objective is less
measurable and deals with understanding, enjoyment or knowledge.
Example
o The best way to understand how aims, goals and objectives differ
from one another is to see an example that encompasses all three. An aim is to
gain career or job satisfaction. A goal is to place yourself in a job that
allows for upward mobility or a more enjoyable work environment. Your
objectives are to prepare a resume, arrange job interviews and search for job
openings in your field of interest. In the classroom, an aim is to make
students proficient in algebra. A goal is to have students learn systems of
equations. An objective is to give students daily assignments that helps them
practice these skills to improve understanding and test scores.
Instructional
Methods and Techniques
Unit # 7 (Instructional Methods and Techniques)
1. Traditional Method of
Instruction
i.
Lecture
Method
ii.
Lecture
Demonstration Method
iii.
Assignment
Method
2. Modern
Strategies/Approaches
Project Method
Inquiry Method
Micro-teaching
Programmed
Learning
Team Teaching
Communicative
Approach
3. Teaching Techniques
Questioning
Discussion
1. Traditional Method of Instruction
Lecture
Method
It is oldest teaching method given
by philosophy of idealism. As used in education, The lecture method refers to
the teaching procedure involved in clarification or explanation of the students
of some major idea. This method lays emphasis on the penetration of contents.
Teacher is more active and students are passive but he also uses question
answers to keep them attentive in the class. It is used to motivate, clarify, expand
and review the information. By changing Ms Voice, by impersonating characters, by
shifting his posing, by using simple devices, a teacher can deliver lessons effectively,
while delivering his lecture; a teacher can indicate by her facial expressions,
gestures and tones the exact slide of meaning that he wishes to convey.
Thus we can say that when teacher takes the help of
a lengthy-short explanation in
Order to clarify his ideas or some fact that
explanation is termed as lecture or lecture
Method and after briefing about lecture method.
Let’s see what is a demonstration.
Demonstration
method
The dictionary meaning of the word
"demonstration" is the outward showing of a feeling etc.; a
description and explanation by experiment; so also logically to prove the
truth; or a practical display of a piece of equipment to snow its display of a piece
of equipment to show its capabilities. In short it is a proof provided by
logic, argument etc. To define "it is a physical display of the form,
outline or a substance of object or events for the purpose of increasing
knowledge of such objects or events. Demonstration involves "showing what
or showing how". Demonstration is relatively uncomplicated process in that
it does not require extensive verbal elaboration. Now it will be easy to define
what is lecture cum demonstration method. To begin with, this method includes
the merits of lecture method and demonstration method. The teacher performs the
experiment in the class and goes on explaining what she does. It takes into
account the active participation of the student and is thus not a lopsided
process like the lecture method. The students see the actual apparatus and operations
and help the teacher in demonstrating experiments and thereby they feel interested
in learning. So also this method follows maxims from concrete to abstract. Wherein
the students observe the demonstration critically and try to draw inferences. Thus
with help of lecture cum demonstration method their power of observation And reasoning
is also exercised. So the important principle on which this method works "Truth
is that works."
Requirements
of good Demonstration
The success of any demonstration following points
should be kept in mind.
1. It should be planned and rehearsed by the teacher
before hand.
2. The apparatus used for demonstration should be
big enough to be seen by the whole class. If the class may be disciplined she
may allow them to sit on the benches to enable them a better view.
3. Adequate lighting arrangements be made on
demonstration table and a proper background table need to be provided.
4. All the pieces of apparatus be placed in order
before starting the demonstration. The apparatus likely to be used should be
placed in the left hand side of the table and it should be arranged in the same
order in which it is likely to be used
5. Before actually starting the demonstration a
clear statement about the purpose of demonstration be made to the students.
6. The teacher makes sure that the demonstration
lecture method leads to active participation of the students in the process of
teaching.
7. The demonstration should be quick and slick and
should not appear to linger on unnecessarily.
8. The demonstration should be interesting so that
it captures the attention of the students.
9. It would be better if the teacher demonstrates
with materials or things the children handles in everyday life.
10. For active participation of students the teacher
may call individual student in turn to help him in demonstration.
11. The teacher should write the summary of the
principles arrived at because of demonstration on the blackboard. The black
board can be also used for drawing the necessary diagrams.
Steps
needed to conduct a Lecture -cum demonstration lesson.
1. Planning and preparation: A great care be taken
by the teacher while planning and preparing his demonstration. He should keep
the following points I mind while preparing his lesson.
a.
Subject matter.
b. Questions to be asked.
c. Apparatus required for the experiment
To achieve the above stated
objective the teacher should thoroughly go through the pages of the text book,
relevant to the lesson. After this he should prepare his lesson plan in which
he should essentially include the principles to be explained, a lot of experiments
to be demonstrated and type of questions to be asked form the students. These
questions are arranged in a systematic order to be followed in the class.
Before actually demonstrating the experiment to a class, the experiment be
rehearsed under the condition prevailing in the classroom. In spite of this,
some thing may go wrong at the actual lesson, so reserve apparatus is often
useful the apparatus has to be arranged in a systematic manner on the demonstration
table. Thus for the success of demonstration method a teacher has to prepare
himself as thoroughly as possible.
Introduction
of the lesson
As in every subject so also in the case of
science the lesson should stat with proper motivation of the students. It is
always considered more useful to introduce the lesson in a problematic way
which would make the student's realise the importance of the topic. The usual
way through which the teacher can introduce the lesson is by telling some
personal experience or incident of a simple and interesting experiment. A good
experiment carefully demonstrated is likely to leave an everlasting impression
on the mind of the young pupils and would set the students talking about it in
the school.
Presentation
The method presenting the subject matter is
very important. A good teacher should present his lesson in an interesting
manner and not in an boring manner. To make the lesson interesting the teacher
may not be very rigid too remain within the prescribed course rather he or she
should make the lesson as much as broad based as possible. For widening the
lesson the teacher may think of various useful application taught by him. He is
also at the liberty to take examples and illustrations for allied branches of
science like history, geography etc. Constant questions and answer should form
a part of every demonstration lesson. Questions and cross question are
essential for properly illuminating the principles discussed. Question should
be arranged in such a way that their answers may form a complete teaching unit
Performance
of experiment
A good observer has been described
as a person who has learnt the use the senses of touch, sight, and smell in an
intelligent way. Through this method we want children to observe what happens
in a experiment and to state it carefully. We also want them to make
generalization without violating scientific spirit i.e. we should allow
children from one experiment or observation. The following steps are generally
accepted as valuable in conducting science experiment generally.
a. Write the problem to be solved in
simple words.
b. To make a list of activities that has
to be used to solve the problem.
c. Gather material for conducting the
experiment
d. Work out a format of steps in the
order of preocedu8re so that everyone knows
what is to be done.
e. Teacher should try the experiment
before conduction. f. Record the findings.
g. Assist students to make generalization.
Black
Board Summary
A summary of important results and principles
should be written in the Blackboard. Use of blackboard should be also
frequently used to draw sketches and diagrams. The entire procedure should be
displayed to the students after the demonstration.
Supervision
Students are asked to take the
complete notes of the black board summary including the sketches and diagrams
drawn. Such a record will be quite helpful to the student while learning his
lessons .Such a summary will prove beneficial only if it has been copied
correctly from the black boards and to make sure that it is done so the teacher
must check it frequently during this stage.
Common
Errors in Demonstration Lesson
A summary of the common errors committed while
delivering a demonstration lesson is given below:
a)Apparatus may not be ready for use
b)There may not be an apparent relation
between the demonstration experiment and the topic under discussion.
c)Black board summary not up to the mark
d)Teacher may be in a hurry to arrive at
a generalization without allowing students to arrive at a generalization from
facts.
e)Teacher may take to talking too much
which will mar the enthusiasm of the students.
f)Teacher may not have allowed
sufficient time for recording of data.
g)Teacher may fail to ask the right type
of questions
Merits
of Lecture cum Demonstration Method
a)It is an economical method as compared
to a purely student centered method
b)It is a psychological method and
students take active interest in the teaching learning process
c)It leads the students from concrete to
abstract situations
d)It is suitable method if the apparatus
to be handled is costly and sensitive. Such apparatus is likely to be handled
and damaged by the students.
e)This method is safe if the experiment
is dangerous.
f)In comparison to Heuristic, Project
method it is time saving but purely Lecture method is too lengthy
g)It can be successfully used for all
types of students
h)It improves the observational and
reasoning sills of the students
Limitations of Lecture cum
Demonstration Method
a)
It provides no scope for "Learning by Doing" for the Students as
students are only observing the Teacher performing.
b)
Since Teacher performs the experiment at his/ her own pace many students may not
be abl to comprehend the concept being clarified.
c)
Since this method is not child centred it makes no provision for individual differences,
all types of students including slow learners and genius have to proceed with
the same speed.
d)
It fails to develop laboratory skills in the students.
e)
It fails to impart training in scientific attitude. In this method students
many a times fail to observe many finer details of the apparatus used because
they observe it from a distance.
iv.
Assignment Method
2. Project method
- It is
based on John Dewey’s philosophy of pragmatism
- Dr.
Kilpatrick said,
“ A project is a unit of whole hearted purposeful activity, carried on
preferably , in its natural setting”
- Stephen
soon defined it
as, “ A project is a bit of real life that has been imported into the
school”
- Project
plan is a modified form of an old method called, “concentration of
studies” which means some subjects are taken as core or centre and all
other school subjects, as they arise, are studied in connection with it
- It is
based on the principle of learning by doing
There are two types of projects
- Individual
projects, carried out by a single individual
- The
social project which is carried out by a group of individual
To complete any project we have five stages in actual practice
- Providing
a situation
- Choosing
and purposing
- Planning
of the project
- Executing
the project
- Judging
the project
There is no rigidity about these stages. Modifications can be
made according to the nature of the project, project should be given to the
students according to their abilities and stamina
Example
Project: “Celebration of
republic day”
The project can have the following different aspects
- Why do
we celebrate this day?
- The
school programme of its celebration
- Estimated
expenditure for different items, budget preparation
- From
where to arrange for the expenses?
- The
account of collection from the locality, if any
- The
account of collections from amongst the students, if any
- The
preparation and organization of different items of the programme
- Making
purchases for the programme
9. Keeping accounts of the expenses incurred
(invited, deserved)
10. Execution
(completing, finishing) of the different programme
11. Preparing the report
of the programme
12. Evaluation of the
entire celebration
Merits of the Project Method
- It is
based on psychological laws of learning. Education is related to the
child's life and is acquired through meaningful activity
- It
uploads (give) the dignity of labour
- It
introduces democracy in a education , because it necessitates cooperation
among students and their activity together for a common cause
- It
brings about concentration of studies and correlation of activity and
subject
- It
emphasizes problem solving rather than cramming or memorizing
- It
inculcates social discipline through joint activities
- It
develops self confidence and self discipline
- A
project tends to illustrate real nature of the subject and produce spirit
of enquiry
- Project
can be used to arouse interest, justify the study of the topics, encourage
initiative and give the students joy at the successful completion of the
given work
- There
is no opportunity for mutual exchange of ideas
Drawbacks of the project method
- Mathematics
can not be taught purely by this method , incidental teaching will not
suffice , planned teaching will have to be added to it
- Students
will not acquire skill and efficiency without collective and individual
drill which will be possible through planned teaching only
- There
is no saving of time, energy and efforts
- A
single opportunity for practical experience can not develop or promote
computational ability
- Systematic
and continuous teaching is not possible
Some suitable projects are,
- Purchase
of craft material
- Running
the hostel mess
- The
sports day
- A
variety programme
- Model
of the village
- School
bank
- Use of
mathematics in a large business
- Mathematics
in the kitchen
Inquiry Method
Definition and Applications
Inquiry
learning begins when students are presented with questions to be answered,
problems to be solved, or a set of observations to be explained. If the method
is implemented effectively, the students should learn to “formulate good
questions, identify and collect appropriate evidence, present results
systematically, analyze and interpret results, formulate conclusions, and
evaluate the worth and importance of those conclusions.” The same statements
could also be made about problem-based learning, project-based learning,
discovery learning, certain forms of case based instruction and student
research, however, so that inquiry learning may be considered an umbrella category
that encompasses several other inductive teaching methods. Lee makes this point,
observing that inquiry is also consistent with interactive lecture, discussion,
simulation, service learning, and independent study, and in fact “probably the
only strategy that is not consistent with inquiry-guided learning is the
exclusive use of traditional lecturing.”
Here
we will use the term inquiry learning to
refer to instruction that uses questions and problems to provide contexts for
learning and does not fall into another more restrictive inductive learning
category. Besides overlapping with other inductive methods, inquiry learning
encompasses a variety of techniques that differ from one another in significant
ways. Staver and Bay
differentiate
between structured inquiry (students
are given a problem and an outline for how to solve it), guided inquiry (students must also
figure out the solution method) and open
inquiry (students must formulate the problem for themselves). Smith makes
a similar distinction between teacher
inquiry, in which the teacher poses questions, and learner inquiry, in which
questions are
posed by the students. In process-oriented-guided-inquiry-learning
(POGIL), students work in small groups in a class or laboratory on
instructional modules that present them with information or data, followed by
leading questions designed to guide them toward formulation of their own
conclusions. The instructor serves as facilitator, working with student groups
if they need help and addressing class-wide problems when necessary. Some
proponents of inquiry suggest using a relatively structured form of inquiry in the
first year, gradually shifting toward more self-directed learning (including
problem
formulation) as
the curriculum progresses, while others advocate moving immediately to self
direction. Inquiry-based methods have been used extensively in the sciences and
to a lesser extent in engineering. Guided inquiry has been particularly widely
used in chemistry curricula. The POGIL Web site contains reports of
implementations on several campuses, instructional materials for different
branches of chemistry, and a video showing an implementation of the method in
an introductory chemistry class
Lee
et al report on a series of
inquiry-based courses in different disciplines at North Carolina State
University
· Introductory
chemistry and physics courses are conducted in a hands-on inquiry-based environment
called SCALE-UP (Student-Centered Activities for Large Enrollment University
Programs). Students read and take quizzes about assigned material before coming
to class (a characteristic of Just-in-Time
Teaching, another inductive technique to be
discussed), and
work in teams on activities designed to help them discover or investigate concepts
for themselves.
· In an
introductory first-year microbiology course, the students read articles,
generate questions stimulated by the readings, identify underlying hypotheses
and assumptions in the articles, discuss their findings in small groups, and
submit both their individual work and group assignments. In honors sections of several
third-year microbiology courses, the students do extensive analysis and
interpretation of experimental data and case studies, with emphasis being
placed on collecting and interpreting scientific data and testing hypotheses.
· In a first- year
paper science and engineering course, the students complete an open-ended design
project, and in another first-year course they spend most of their time working
in teams on advanced problems at a level previously reserved for seniors, learning
on their own a great deal of the material that would traditionally have been
delivered in lectures.
In an
experimental College of Engineering program, instructors are given grants to develop
innovative classroom applications of laptop computers with wireless Internet
access, which are made available to all students in their courses. Courses in
this program that made inquiry a significant component of their instruction
included the second and third semesters of calculus, in which students used to
explore solutions to real-world problems, and a course on JAVA programming, in
which students worked in pairs at the computer during class to develop and
implement programs and to clarify their conceptual understanding of programming
principles.
Micro learning
Micro learning deals with relatively small learning units and
short-term learning activities. Generally, the term "micro learning" refers
to micro-perspectives
in the context of learning, education and training. More frequently, the term
is used in the domain of e-learning and related fields in the sense of a new
paradigmatic perspective on learning processes in mediated environments on micro levels.
Introduction In a wide sense, micro learning can be
understood as a metaphor which refers to micro aspects of a variety of learning
models, concepts and processes.
"No matter if learning refers to the process of
building up and organizing knowledge, to the change of behaviour,
of attitudes, of values,
of mental abilities, of cognitive structures, of emotional reactions, of
action patterns or of societal dimensions, in all cases we have the possibility
to consider micro,
and macro
aspects of the various views on more or less persisting changes and sustainable
alterations of performances." (Hug 2005, p. 4).
Depending on frames and domains of reference, micro, meso and macro aspects
vary. They are relational concepts. For example, in the context of language
learning, one might think of micro aspects in terms of vocabularies, phrases,
sentences, and distinguish them from situations and episodes (meso aspects) and
socio-cultural specifics or complex semantics (macro aspects). In a more
general discourse on learning, one might differentiate between the learning of
individuals, group learning or learning of organizations and the learning of
generations or societies.
Furthermore, micro learning marks a transition from common models of
learning towards micro perspectives on and the significance of micro dimensions
in the process of learning. The micro learning approach is an emergent paradigm, so
there are no hard definitions or coherent uses of the term yet. However, the
growing focus on microlearning activities can be seen by web
users' activities on the subject, who tag
their corresponding web
log postings and social bookmarks with the term
"microlearning" (check the corresponding Technorati and delicious tags for examples).
As an instructional technology, microlearning
focuses on the design of microlearning activities through micro steps in digital
media environments, which already is a daily reality for today's knowledge
workers. These activities can be incorporated in learner's daily routines
and tasks. Unlike "traditional" e-learning approaches, microlearning
often tends towards push technology through push media,
which reduces the cognitive load on the learners. Therefore, the
selection of micro learning objects and also pace and timing of
microlearning activities are of importance for didactical designs.
Characterization
of microlearning
Microlearning
can be characterized as follows:
- Microlearning processes
often derive from interaction with micro
content, which takes place either in designed (media) settings
(e-learning) or in emergent micro content structures like web log postings
or social bookmark managers on the World
Wide Web (Mosel 2005).
- Microlearning can be an
assumption about the time needed to solve a learning task, for example
answering a question, memorizing an information item, or finding a needed
resource (Masie 2006). Learning processes that have been called
"microlearning" can cover a span from few seconds (e.g. in
mobile learning) up to 15 minutes or more. There is some relation to the
term microteaching, which is
an established practice in teacher education.
- Microlearning can also be
understood as a process of
subsequent, "short" learning activities, i.e. learning through
interaction with micro content objects in small timeframes. In this case,
the design, selection, feedback and pacing of repeated or otherwise
"chained" microlearning tasks comes into view.
- In a wider sense,
microlearning is a term that can be used to describe the way more and more
people are actually doing informal learning and gaining knowledge in micro
content, micro media or multitasking
environments (microcosm), especially
those that become increasingly based on Web
2.0 and wireless web
technologies. In this wider sense, the borders between microlearning and
the complementary concept of micro
knowledge are blurring.
Dimensions
of microlearning
The
following dimensions can be used to describe or design microlearning
activities:
- Time: relatively short effort, operating expense, degree
of time consumption, measurable time, subjective
time, etc.
- Content: small or very small units, narrow topics, rather
simple issues, etc.
- Curriculum: small part of curricular setting, parts of modules,
elements of informal learning, etc.
- Form: fragments, facets, episodes, "knowledge
nuggets", skill elements, etc.
- Process: separate, concomitant or actual, situated or
integrated activities, iterative method, attention management,
awareness (getting into or being in a process), etc.
- Mediality: print media, electronic media, mono-media vs.
multi-media, (inter-)mediated forms, etc.
- Learning type: repetitive, activist, reflective, pragmatist, conventionalist,
constructivist, connectivist, behaviorist; also: action
learning, classroom learning, corporate learning, etc.
Examples of
microlearning activities
- reading a paragraph of text,
e-mail
or sms
- listening to an
informational (short) pod cast or an educational video-clip
- viewing a flashcard
- memorizing a word,
vocabulary, definition or formula
- sorting a set of (micro
content) items by chronological order
- selecting an answer to a
question
- answering questions in
quizzes
- playful learning with
micro-games
- composing a haiku
or a short poem
Microlearning
applications (examples)
- Screensavers which prompt
the user to solve small series of simple tasks after a certain amount of
inactivity
- Quizzes with multiple
choice options on cell
phones by use of sms or mobile
applications (java midlets,
symbian)
- Word of the day as daily RSS-feed or e-mail
- Flashcard-software for
memorizing content through spaced repetition
Programmed
learning
Programmed Learning or Programmed
Instruction is a learning methodology or technique first proposed by the
behaviorist
B. F. Skinner in 1958.[1]
According to Skinner, the purpose of programmed learning is to "manage
human learning under controlled conditions".[2]
Programmed learning has three elements: (1) it delivers information in small
bites, (2) it is self-paced by the learner, and (3) it provides immediate
feedback, both positive and negative, to the learner.[3]
It was popular in the late 1960s and through the 1970s, but pedagogical
interest was lost in the early 1980s as it was difficult to implement and its
limitations were not well understood by practitioners. It was revived in the
1990s in the computerized Integrated Learning System (ILS)
approach,[2]
primarily in the business and managerial context.[4]
Programmed learning remains popular in self-teaching textbooks.
The methodology involves self-administered and self-paced learning, in
which the student is presented with information in small steps often referred
to as "frames".[2]
Each frame contains a small segment of the information to be learned, and a
question which the student must answer. After each frame the student uncovers,
or is directed to, additional information based on an incorrect answer, or
positive feedback for a correct answer.
Examples
Daily Oral Language and the Saxon method, a math programme, are
specific implementations of programmed instruction which have an emphasis on
repetition. Well-known books using programmed learning include the Lisp/Scheme text The Little Schemer and Bobby Fischer Teaches Chess.
Criticism
Programmed Instruction has been criticized for its inability to provide
adequate feedback on incorrect answers and for its lack of student instigated
conceptualization opportunities.[3]
It works best in basic courses which introduce the vocabulary of a discipline,
heavily fact-based courses, and rule-based technical courses.
Programmed Learning is a learning technique first proposed by the behaviorist
B. F. Skinner in 1958. According to
Skinner, the purpose of programmed learning is to "manage human learning
under controlled conditions".
The technique involves
self-administered and self-paced learning, in which the student is presented
with information in small steps called "frames". Each frame contains
a small segment of the information to be learned, and a statement in which the
student must fill a blank section, and after each frame the student uncovers
the correct answer before advancing to the next frame.
Team Teaching
Interdisciplinary teaching is also called is a method, or set of methods,
used to teach a unit across different curricular disciplines. For example, the
seventh grade Language Arts, Science and Social
Studies teachers might work together to form an interdisciplinary unit on
rivers.
The
local river system would be the unifying idea, but the English teacher would
link it to Language Arts by studying river vocabulary and teaching students how
to do a research report. The science teacher might teach children about the life
systems that exist in the river, while the Social Studies teacher might help
students research the local history and peoples who used the river for food and
transport.
Types of
Interdisciplinary Teaching
There are many different types, or levels, of interdisciplinary teaching.
On one end, schools might employ an interdisciplinary
team approach, in which teachers of different content areas assigned to
one group of students who are encouraged to correlate some of their teaching (Vary,
1991). The most common method of implementing integrated, interdisciplinary
instruction is the thematic unit,
in which a common theme is studied in more than one content area (Barton &
Smith, 2000).
The example given above about rivers would be considered multidisciplinary or parallel design,
which is defined as lessons or units developed across many disciplines with a
common organizing topic (Jackson & Davis, 2000).
One of the foremost scholars of interdisciplinary teaching techniques is
James Beane, who advocates for curriculum
integration, which is curriculum that is collaboratively designed around
important issues. It has four major components: the integration of experiences,
social integration, the integration of knowledge, and integration as a
curriculum design. It differs from other types of interdisciplinary teaching in
that it begins with a central theme that emerges from questions or social
concerns students have, without regard to subject delineations (Beane, 1997).
In 1989, the seminal work, Interdisciplinary Curriculum: Design and
Implementation, edited by Heidi Hayes Jacobs was published by ASCD (Alexandria , Va.
Benefits of
Interdisciplinary Teaching
A school district in Michigan
Flowers, Mertens, & Mulhall identify five important outcomes and
findings of their experiences with interdisciplinary teaching and planning:
common planning time is vital, schools that team have a more positive work
climate, parental contact is more frequent, teachers report a higher job
satisfaction, and student achievement scores in schools that team are higher
than those that do not team (1999).
Additionally, Pumerantz & Galanto find that interdisciplinary teaching
allows for students to, “Proceed at a pace commensurate with their interests,
skills, and experiences” (1972).
Integrated instruction helps teachers better utilize instructional time and
look deeper into subjects through a variety of content-specific lens. Another
benefit of integrated instruction is that teachers can better differentiate
instruction to individual student needs. Integrated instruction also allows for
authentic assessment (Barton & Smith, 2000). A
final benefit of interdisciplinary teaching is that students have a chance to
work with multiple sources of information, thus ensuring they are receiving a
more inclusive perspective than they would from consulting one textbook (Wood,
1997).
Implementation
of Interdisciplinary Teaching
Heidi Hayes Jacobs presents a four-phase approach to curriculum integration
planning. (1989, ASCD, Alexandria ,
Va
Criticisms
and Shortcomings of Interdisciplinary Teaching Methods
Scholars that advocate for curriculum integration argue that the topics
studied should originate with students and their teachers, and not from
district-imposed curriculum packages. This raises the important issue of
accountability (Stevenson, 1998). As school districts often have
decision-making panels that consist of stakeholders such as teachers, parents, and
students, curriculum integration may take away their agency to make curricular
choices. In addition to issues of local control, truly integrated curricula may
or may not prepare students for the high-stakes
tests that have become a reality for most high schools around the world,
depending on whether they cover the same material. Finally, there is also
concern that integrated teaching discounts the value of deep subject-specific
knowledge, which is essential for specialization in areas such as medicine,
law, and engineering (Gatewood, 1998).
Thematic units can also fall short of teaching in-depth content to
students. Often a theme, such as apples, is used to link unrelated subjects,
with little deference to students’ prior knowledge or interests. This
superficial coverage of a topic can give students the wrong idea about school,
perhaps missing the idea of curriculum integration in the first place (Barton
& Smith, 2000). Thematic units can contain pointless busywork and
activities created solely to create a link to a theme; for example, the
alphabetizing of state capitals in a social studies unit, attempting to
integrate it with language arts (Brophy & Alleman, 1991).
Communicative
language teaching
Communicative language teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of
second and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction
as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. It is
also referred to as “communicative approach to the teaching of foreign
languages” or simply the “communicative approach”.
Relationship
with other methods and approaches
Historically, CLT has been seen as a response to the audio-lingual method (ALM), and as an
extension or development of the notional-functional syllabus. Task-based language learning, a more
recent refinement of CLT, has gained considerable popularity.
The audio-lingual method
The audio-lingual method (ALM) arose as a direct result of the need for
foreign language proficiency in listening and speaking skills during and after World War
II. It is closely tied to behaviorism, and thus made drilling, repetition, and
habit-formation central elements of instruction. Proponents of ALM felt that
this emphasis on repetition needed a corollary emphasis on accuracy, claiming
that continual repetition of errors would lead to the fixed acquisition of
incorrect structures and non-standard pronunciation.
In the classroom, lessons were often organized by grammatical structure and
presented through short dialogues. Often, students listened repeatedly to recordings
of conversations (for example, in the language
lab) and focused on accurately mimicking the pronunciation and grammatical
structures in these dialogs.
Critics of ALM asserted that this over-emphasis on repetition and accuracy
ultimately did not help students achieve communicative competence in the target
language. Noam Chomsky argued "Language is not a habit
structure. Ordinary linguistic behaviour characteristically involves
innovation, formation of new sentences and patterns in accordance with rules of
great abstractness and intricacy". They looked for new ways to present and
organize language instruction, and advocated the notional functional syllabus,
and eventually CLT as the most effective way to teach second and foreign
languages. However, audio-lingual methodology is still prevalent in many text
books and teaching materials. Moreover, advocates of audio-lingual methods
point to their success in improving aspects of language that are habit driven,
most notably pronunciation.
The
notional-functional syllabus
A notional-functional syllabus is more a way of organizing a language
learning curriculum
than a method or an approach to teaching. In a notional-functional syllabus,
instruction is organized not in terms of grammatical structure as had often
been done with the ALM, but in terms of “notions” and “functions.” In this
model, a “notion” is a particular context in which people communicate, and a
“function” is a specific purpose for a speaker in a given context. As an
example, the “notion” or context shopping
requires numerous language functions including asking about prices or features
of a product and bargaining. Similarly, the notion party would require numerous functions like introductions and
greetings and discussing interests and hobbies. Proponents of the
notional-functional syllabus claimed that it addressed the deficiencies they
found in the ALM by helping students develop their ability to effectively
communicate in a variety of real-life contexts.
Learning by teaching
Learning by teaching is a widespread method in
Germany
- An emphasis on learning to
communicate through interaction in the target language.
- The introduction of
authentic texts into the learning situation.
- The provision of
opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the Learning Management
process.
- An enhancement of the
learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to
classroom learning.
- An attempt to link
classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom.
These five features are claimed by practitioners of CLT to show that they
are very interested in the needs and desires of their learners as well as the
connection between the language as it is taught in their class and as it used
outside the classroom. Under this broad umbrella definition, any teaching
practice that helps students develop their communicative competence in an authentic
context is deemed an acceptable and beneficial form of instruction. Thus, in
the classroom CLT often takes the form of pair and group work requiring
negotiation and cooperation between learners, fluency-based activities that
encourage learners to develop their confidence, role-plays in which students practice
and develop language functions, as well as judicious use of grammar and
pronunciation focused activities.
In the mid 1990s the Dogma 95 manifesto influenced language teaching
through the Dogme language teaching movement, who
proposed that published materials can stifle the communicative approach. As
such the aim of the Dogme approach to language teaching is to focus on real conversations
about real subjects so that communication is the engine of learning. This
communication may lead to explanation, but that this in turn will lead to
further communication.[1]
Classroom
activities used in CLT
Example Activities
Role Play
Interviews
Information Gap
Games
Language Exchanges
Surveys
Pair Work
Learning by teaching
However, not all courses that utilize the Communicative Language approach
will restrict their activities solely to these. Some courses will have the
students take occasional grammar quizzes, or prepare at home using
non-communicative drills, for instance. William Glasser's "control
theory" exemplifies his attempts to empower students and give them voice
by focusing on their basic, human needs: Unless students are given power, they
may exert what little power they have to thwart learning and achievement
through inappropriate behavior and mediocrity. Thus, it is important for
teachers to give students voice, especially in the current educational climate,
which is dominated by standardization and testing (Simmons and Page, 2010).
Critiques of
CLT
One of the most famous attacks on communicative language teaching was
offered by Michael Swan in the English Language Teaching
Journal in 1985.[3]
Henry Widdowson responded in defense of CLT, also in the ELT Journal (1985
39(3):158-161). More recently other writers (e.g. Bax) have critiqued CLT for
paying insufficient attention to the context in which teaching and learning
take place, though CLT has also been defended against this charge (e.g. Harmer
2003).
Often, the communicative approach is deemed a success if the teacher
understands the student. But, if the teacher is from the same region as the
student, the teacher will understand errors resulting from an influence from
their first language. Native speakers of the target language may still have
difficulty understanding them. This observation may call for new thinking on
and adaptation of the communicative approach. The adapted communicative
approach should be a simulation where the teacher pretends to understand only
what any regular speaker of the target language would and reacts accordingly
(Hattum 2006).
Teaching Techniques
Questioning
Socratic questioning is disciplined questioning
that can be used to pursue thought in many directions and for many purposes, including:
to explore complex ideas, to get to the truth of things, to
open up issues and problems, to uncover assumptions, to analyze concepts, to
distinguish what we know from what we don't know, to follow out logical implications of thought, or to control
the discussion. The key to distinguishing Socratic questioning from questioning
per se is that Socratic
questioning is systematic, disciplined, and deep, and usually focuses on
fundamental concepts, principles, theories, issues, or problems.
Socratic questioning is referred to in teaching, and
has gained currency as a concept in education
particularly in the past two decades. Teachers, students, or indeed anyone
interested in probing thinking at a deep level can and should construct
Socratic questions and engage in these questions.
Pedagogy
When teachers use Socratic questioning in teaching, their purpose may be to
probe student thinking, to determine the extent of student knowledge on a given
topic, issue or subject, to model Socratic questioning for students, or to help
students analyze a concept or line of reasoning. It is suggested that students
should learn the discipline of Socratic questioning so that they begin to use
it in reasoning through complex issues, in understanding and assessing the
thinking of others, and in following-out the implications of what they, and
others think.
In
teaching, teachers can use Socratic questioning for at least two purposes:
- To deeply probe student
thinking, to help students begin to distinguish what they know or
understand from what they do not know or understand (and to help them
develop intellectual humility in the process).
- To foster students'
abilities to ask Socratic questions, to help students acquire the powerful
tools of Socratic dialogue, so that they can use these tools in everyday life
(in questioning themselves and others). To this end, teachers can model
the questioning strategies they want students to emulate and employ.
Moreover, teachers need to directly teaching students how to construct and
ask deep questions. Beyond that, students need practice to improve their
questioning abilities.
Socratic questioning illuminates the importance of questioning in learning
(indeed Socrates
himself thought that questioning was the only defensible form of teaching). It
illuminates the difference between systematic and fragmented thinking. It
teaches us to dig beneath the surface of our ideas. It teaches us the value of
developing questioning minds in cultivating deep learning. Integrating Socratic
questions this the following manner in the classroom help develop active,
independent learners:
- Getting students to clarify their thinking
e.g., ‘Why do you say that?
- Challenging students about assumptions
e.g., ‘Is this always the case?’, ‘Why do you think that
this assumption holds here?’
- Evidence as a basis for argument
e.g., ‘Why do you say that?’, ‘Is there reason to doubt this
evidence?’
- Alternative viewpoints and perspectives
e.g., ‘What is the counter argument for?’, ‘Can/did anyone
see another way?’
- Implications and
consequences
e.g., ‘But if...happened, what else would result?’, ‘How
does...affect...?’
- Question the question
e.g., ‘Why do you think that I asked that question?’, ‘Why
was that question important?’, ‘Which of your questions turned out to be the
most useful?’
The art of Socratic questioning is intimately connected with critical
thinking because the art of questioning is important to excellence of
thought. What the word "Socratic" adds to the art of questioning is systematic,
depth, and an abiding interest in assessing the truth or plausibility of
things.
Both critical thinking and Socratic questioning share a common end.
Critical thinking provides the conceptual tools for understanding how the mind
functions in its pursuit of meaning and truth; Socratic questioning employs
those tools in framing questions essential to the pursuit of meaning and truth.
The goal of critical thinking is to establish an additional level of
thinking to our thinking, a powerful inner voice of reason, that monitors,
assesses, and reconstitutes—in a more rational direction—our thinking, feeling,
and action. Socratic discussion cultivates that inner voice through an explicit
focus on self-directed, disciplined questioning.
Psychology
Socratic questioning has also been used in therapy, most
notably as a cognitive restructuring technique in cognitive
therapy, Logotherapy and Classical Adlerian psychotherapy.
The purpose here is to help uncover the assumptions and evidence that underpin
people's thoughts in respect of problems. A set of Socratic questions in
cognitive therapy to deal with automatic thoughts that distress the patient:[3][4]
- Revealing the issue: ‘What
evidence supports this idea? And what evidence is against its being true?’
- Conceiving reasonable
alternatives: ‘What might be another explanation or viewpoint of the
situation? Why else did it happen?’
- Examining various
potential consequences: ‘What are worst, best, bearable and most realistic
outcomes?’
- Evaluate those
consequences: ‘What’s the effect of thinking or believing this? What could
be the effect of thinking differently and no longer holding onto this
belief?’
- Distancing: ‘Imagine a
specific friend/family member in the same situation or if they viewed the
situation this way, what would I tell them?’
Careful use of Socratic questioning enables a therapist to challenge
recurring or isolated instances of a person's illogical thinking while
maintaining an open position that respects the internal logic to even the most
seemingly illogical thoughts.
Discussion
Nominal group
technique
The nominal group technique
(NGT) is a decision making method for use among groups
of many sizes, who want to make their decision quickly, as by a vote, but want
everyone's opinions taken into account (as opposed to traditional voting, where
only the largest group is considered)[1]
. The method of tallying is the difference. First, every member of the group
gives their view of the solution, with a short explanation. Then, duplicate
solutions are eliminated from the list of all solutions, and the members
proceed to rank the solutions, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on.
Some facilitators will encourage the sharing and discussion of reasons for
the choices made by each group member, thereby identifying common ground, and a
plurality of ideas and approaches. This diversity often allows the creation of
a hybrid idea (combining parts of two or more ideas), often found to be even
better than those ideas being initially considered.
In the basic method, the numbers each solution receives are totaled, and
the solution with the highest (i.e. most favored) total ranking is selected as
the final decision. There are variations on how this technique is used. For
example, it can identify strengths versus areas in need of development, rather
than be used as a decision-making voting alternative. Also, options do not
always have to be ranked, but may be evaluated more subjectively.
This technique was originally developed by Delbecq and VandeVen, and has
been applied to adult education program planning by Vedros.
Effects
NGT have been shown to enhance one or more dimensions of effectiveness of
decision-making groups. Requiring individuals to write down their ideas
silently and independently prior to a group discussion increased the number of
solutions generated by groups.[2][3]
Round-robin polling also resulted in a larger number of inputs and fostered
more equal participation.[4]
The increased number of heterogeneous inputs led to high quality decisions.[5]
As compared to interacting groups the NGT groups provide more unique ideas,
more balanced participation between group members, increased feelings of
accomplishment, and greater satisfaction with idea quality and group
efficiency.[6]
These findings are consistent with a 1958 study[7]
which found that, in response to three different problems requiring creative
thinking, the number of ideas produced by "nominal groups" (whose
members were actually working alone) was greater than the number of ideas
produced by real, face-to-face groups. The ideas generated by the nominal and
real groups were rated qualitatively and for originality, and the nominal
groups scored better on both of those measures.
Usage
The
nominal group technique is particularly useful:
- When some group members
are much more vocal than others.
- When some group members
think better in silence.
- When there is concern
about some members not participating.
- When the group does not
easily generate quantities of ideas.
- When all or some group
members are new to the team.
- When the issue is
controversial or there is heated conflict.
- When there is a
power-imbalance between facilitator and participants or participants: the
structure of the NGT session can balance these out.
- When stakeholders like
a(/some) quantitative output of the process.
Standard
procedure
Routinely,
the NGT involves five stages:
- Introduction and explanation: The facilitator
welcomes the participants and explain to them the purpose and procedure of
the meeting.
- Silent generation of ideas: The Facilitator provides
each participant with a sheet of paper with the question to be addressed
and ask them to write down all ideas that come to mind when considering
the question. During this period, the facilitator asks participants not to
consult or discuss their ideas with others. This stage lasts approximately
10 minutes.
- Sharing ideas: The Facilitator invites participants
to share the ideas they have generated. He records each idea on a flip
chart using the words spoken by the participant. The round robin process
continues until all ideas have been presented. There is no debate about
items at this stage and participants are encouraged to write down any new
ideas that may arise from what others share. This process ensures all
participants get an opportunity to make an equal contribution and provides
a written record of all ideas generated by the group. This stage may take
15–30 minutes.
- Group discussion: Participants are invited to seek
verbal explanation or further details about any of the ideas that
colleagues have produced that may not be clear to them. The facilitator’s
task is to ensure that each person is allowed to contribute and that
discussion of all ideas is thorough without spending too long on a single
idea. It is important to ensure that the process is as neutral as
possible, avoiding judgment and criticism. The group may suggest new items
for discussion and combine items into categories, but no ideas should be
eliminated. This stage lasts 30–45 minutes.
- Voting and ranking: This involves prioritizing the
recorded ideas in relation to the original question. Following the voting
and ranking process, immediate results in response to the question is
available to participants so the meeting concludes having reached a
specific outcome.
The number of nominal group meetings to be held will depend on the nature
of the question and accessibility to the key stakeholders best suited to help
address the problem.
Advantages
and disadvantages
One major advantage of NGT is that it avoids two problems caused by group
interaction. First, some members are reluctant to suggest ideas because they
are concerned about being criticized, or are reticent and shy. Second, some
members are reluctant to create conflict
in groups. (Many people want to maintain a pleasant climate.) NGT overcomes
these problems (e.g. [8]).
NGT has the clear advantage of minimizing differences and ensuring relatively
equal participation. It may also, in many cases be a time-saving technique.
Other advantages include producing a large number of ideas and providing a
sense of closure that is often not found in less-structured group methods.
A major disadvantage of NGT is that the method lacks flexibility by being
able to deal with only one problem at a time. Also, there must be a certain
amount of conformity on the part of the members
involved in NGT. Everyone must feel comfortable with the amount of structure
involved. Another disadvantage is the amount of time needed to prepare for the
activity. There is no spontaneity involved with this method. Facilities must be
arranged and carefully planned. Opinions may not converge in the voting
process, cross-fertilization of ideas may be constrained, and the process may
appear to be too mechanical.
One of the key issues about 'nominal' group technique is that it does not
depend on normal group processes. It is a method to work with a collection of
people and involve them in decision making but does not depend on normal group
processes. This is according to the originators an advantage in decision making
using this tool.
Adaptation
for ill-structured problems
Modification of NGT, undertaken by Bartunek and Murnighan, helps to deal
with ill-structured problems. Normal ideas are generated and listed, followed
by the facilitator questioning if the ideas are relevant to the same problem.
If not, the problem is said to be ill-structured, and the ideas generated are
clustered into coherent groups. These clusters of ill-structured ideas are then
treated as problems in their own right, and the NGT procedure is applied to
them. Regular breaks are taken by the participants to ensure that the group
feels they are still working on the original problem.
Unit # 8 Instructional Material
Unit # 8 (Instructional Material)
1. Importance and
Characteristics of Audio Aids
2. Importance and
Characteristics of Visual Aids
3. Description of Various
Audio, Visual and Audio-Visual Aids
4. Teacher’s Role in the
development of Low Cost material
1.
Importance of Audio Aids
1.1.
Characteristics of Audio Aids
2.
Importance of Visual Aids
2.2.
Characteristics of Visual Aids
3.
Description of various Audio, Visual and Audio – Visual Aids
4.
Teacher’s role in the development of Low cost material
Audio Visual
Aids
Introduction: Audio visual material must
be seen in their relationship to teaching as a whole and to the learning
process as a whole, until the teacher understands the relationship between
audio visual material and teaching learning process.
Audio visual materials
are produced, distributed and used as planned components of educational
programs. It helps the process of
learning that is motivation, classification and stimulation. A.v. aids are
multisensory materials which motivate and stimulate the individual. It makes
dynamic learning experience more concrete realistic and clarity. It provides
significant gains in thinking and reasoning.
Audio
visual aids are sensitive tools used in teaching and as avenues for learning.
These are planned educational materials that appeal to the senses of the people
and quicken learning facilities for clear understanding.
Definitions:
According to Kinder S. James:
Audio visual aids are any device which can be used to make the learning
experience more concrete, more realistic and more dynamic.
2. According to Burton
3. According to Carter.v.Good: audio
visual aids are those aids which help in completing the triangular process of
learning that is motivation, classification and stimulation.
4.
According to good’s dictionary of
education: audio visual aids are any thing by means of which learning
process may be encouraged or carried on through the sense of hearing or sense
of sight.
5.
According to Edger Dale: audio
visual aids are those devices by the use of which communication of ideas
between persons and groups in various teaching and training situations is
helped. These are also termed as multi sensory materials.
6. According to McKean and Roberts: audio
visual aids are supplementary devices by which the teacher, through the
utilization of more than one sensory channel is able to clarify, establish and
correlate concepts, interpretations and appreciations.
7. According to KP. Neeraja: an audio
visual aid is an instructional device in which the message can be heard as well
as seen.
Purposes:
To supplement and enrich teachers own teaching to make teaching-learning more
concrete.
To serve an instructional role in itself.
To create interest among the group.
To make teaching as an effective process.
Advantages:
1.
A.V.Aids helps in effective perceptual and conceptual learning.
2.
A.V.Aids helpful in capturing and sustaining attention of students.
3.
A.V.Aids arouses interest and motivates students to learn.
4.
A.V.Aids is helpful in new learning.
5.
A.V.Aids helps in saving energy and time of both the teacher’s and students.
6. A.V.Aids provides near realistic experience.
7.
A.V.Aids can meet individual demands.
8.
A.V.Aids is useful in for education of masses.
Characteristics
of good teaching aids:
Teaching
aids should be
Meaningful
and purposeful
Motivates
the learners
Accurate
in every aspect
Simple
and cheap
Improvised
Large
in size
Up-to-date
Easily
portable
According
to intellectual level of students Sources of A.V.Aids:
Government
Educational
institutions
Professional
organizations
Non-governmental
organizations
Voluntary
organizations(national and international)
Commercial
producers of educational material
Commercial
advertisement
In
nursing organizations like TNAI, INC...etc.
CLASSIFICATION
OF A.V.AIDS:
Various classifications are given for Audio
visual aids according to the type of projection by various authors.
I)
Classification of A.V.Aids
I)
Audio aids
Audio materials
are those which can be heard. Ex: - radio, tape recorder, walkman, Headphones.
II)
Visual aids: these are helpful to visualize the things. Ex:- graphic aids,
3d-aids, display boards, and print material.
III)
Audio visual aids: these aids can be heard and seen simultaneously. Ex: -
projected aids, TV, films.
II) Classification of A.V.Aids
I)
Simple A.V.Aids: It includes graphic aids, display boards, 3d-aids, print material...etc.
II)
Sophisticated A.V.Aids: includes audio-visual aids.
Principles
To Be Followed For The Effective Use Of A.V.Aids:
Audio visual materials should function as an integral part of the educational
program. A.v. aids should be centralized, under specialized direction and
leadership in educational programs. An advisory committee consisting of
representative from all areas of curriculum should be appointed to assist in
selection and coordination of a.v. materials. An education program should be
flexible. A.v. material should be carefully located to eliminate duplication,
easy accessibility and convenient use. A.v. material should be available
whenever and wherever they needed for effective utilization as an integral part
of curriculum. Budget appropriations should be made regularly for a.v.
education programs. Periodic evaluation to be done to assess the function of,
utilization and expenditure of the program.
PROJECTED
A.V. AIDS:
OVER
HEAD PROJECTOR:
The over head projector
is the most used in all a.v. aids. It projects transparencies with brilliant
screen images suitable for use in a lighted room. The teacher can write or draw
diagrams on the transparency while he teaches; these are projected
simultaneously on the screen by the OHP.
During
presentation:
Keep the screen above the heads of the participants.
Keep the screen in full view of participants
Make sure you are not blocking any ones view when presenting.
Darken the room appropriately by blocking out sunshine and dimming near by.
Turn the screen off between slides if you are going to talk for more than two.
Talk to the audience, not to the screen
Purposes:
To develop
concepts and sequences in a subject matter area.
To make marginal
notes on the transparencies for the use of the teacher that can carry with out
exposing them to the class.
To test
students performances, while other classmates observe.
To show
relationships by means of transparent overlays in contrasting color.
To give the
illusion of motion in the transparency.
Advantages:
It
permits the teacher to stand in front of the
class while using the projector, thus enabling her to point out features
appearing on the screen by pointing to
the materials at the projector it
self and at the same time, to observe the students reactions to
her discussion.
Gains
attention of the student
OVER
HEAD TRANSPERENCIES:
Transparencies
are popular instructional medium. They are simple to prepare and easy to
prepare and easy to operate with the over head projector which is light weight.
A
10*10 inches sheet with printed, written or drawn material is placed on the
platform of the projector and a large image is projected on a screen behind
you.
The projector is
used from near to the front of the room with the teacher standing or sitting
beside, facing the student.
Guidelines
for making effective transparencies:
Have one main idea an each transparency.
Include only related figures and diagrams.
Use simple lettering style in writing.
Use diagrams in proposition to its lettering.
Keep the message clear and simple.
Emphasize the key messages.
Use color and lettering with discretion.
Advantages:
Permits face to face interaction with the students.
Can be used in daylight conditions.
Can present information in systemic developmental sequences.
Requires limited planning and can be prepared in variety of inexpensive
methods.
Easily available.
THE
OPAQUE PROJECTOR
Opaque projector
is the only projector on which you can project a variety of materials ex: -
book pages, objects, coins, postcards, or any other similar flat material that
is non-transparent.
The opaque
projector will project and simultaneously enlarge, directly from the originals,
printed matter, all kinds of written or pictorial matter in any sequence
derived by the teacher. It requires a dark room, as projector is large and not
reality movables.
Advantages:
Stimulates attention and arouses interest.
Can project a wide range of materials like stamps, coins, specimen, when one
copy is available.
Can be used for enlarging drawings, pictures and maps.
Does not require any written or typed materials, hand-written material can be
used.
Helps students to retain knowledge for longer period.
Review instructional problems.
Test knowledge and ability.
Simple operation.
Disadvantages:
Costly equipment.
Needs to use it with care.
Needs
a dark room for projection
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SLIDE
PROJECTOR
A slide is a small piece of
transparent material on which a single pictorial image or scene or graphic
image has been photographed or reproduced otherwise.
Slides are a form of projected media that
are easy to prepare. They are still pictures on positive film which you can
process and mount individually yourself or send to a film laboratory. The
standard size of the slides is 2 “X 2 “any 35mm camera will make satisfactory
slides.
Types
of slides
1.
Photographic slides: 2” X 2”
3” X 4”
a)
Black and white
b)
Colored
2. Hand
made slides: can be made with
a)
Acetate sheet
b)
Cellophane
c)
Etched glass
d)
Plain glass
e)
Lumarith
Slides can
be made from photographs and pictures by teachers and pupils taking photographs
and snapshots when they go on fieldtrips for historical, geographical, literacy
or scientific excursions.
The arrangement
of slides in proper sequence, according to the topic discussed, is an important
aspect of teaching with them.
Advantages:
1.
Requires only filming, processing and mounting by self or laboratory.
2.
Results in colorful, realistic, reproduction original subject.
3.
Preparation with any 35mm camera for most uses.
4.
Easy to revise and up-date.
5.
Easily handled, stored and re-arranged for various uses.
6.
Can be combined with tape narration or can control time for discussion.
7.
May be adapted to group or individual use
FILMSTRIPS
Film strips are sequence of
transparent still pictures with individual frames on 35mm film. A tap recorded
narration can be synchronized with film strip.
Each strip
contains from 12 to 18 or more pictures. It is a fixed sequence of related
stills on a roll of 35mm film or 8mm film.
PRINCIPLES
1.
Preview filmstrips before using them and selected carefully to meet the needs
of the topic to be taught.
2.
Show again any part of the filmstrip needing more specific study.
3.
Use filmstrip to stimulate emotions, build attitudes and to point up problems.
4.
It should be introduced appropriately and its relationship to the topic of the
study brought out.
5.
Use a pointer to direct attention, to specific details on the screen.
Types
of filmstrip:
1)
Discussion filmstrip: it is
continuous strip of film consisting of individual frames arranged in sequence
usually with explanatory titles.
2)
Sound slide film: it is similar to
filmstrip but instead of explanatory titles or spoken discussion recorded
explanation is audible, which is synchronized with the pictures.
Advantages:
1)
Are compact, easily handled and always in proper sequence.
2)
Can be supplemented with recordings.
3)
Are inexpensive when quantity reproduction is required.
4)
Are useful for group or individual study at projection rate are controlled by
instructor or user.
5)
Are projected with simple light weight equipment.
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NON
PROJECTED A.V. AIDS:
GRAPHIC
AIDS:
It
is a combination of graphic and pictorial material designed for the orderly and
logical visualizing of relationships between key facts and ideas ex:
comparisons, relative amounts developments, processes, classification or
organization. It includes the following
CHARTS
Introduction:
These visual symbols used for summarizing,
comparing, contrasting or performing other services in explaining subject
matter. A chart is a combination of pictorial, graphic, numerical or vertical
material, which presents a clear summary.
Definition:
Chart is defined
as a visual aid which depicts pictorial and written key information in
systematic way to summarize, compare, ex: anatomical charts and figure,
diagrams etc.
Purposes:
To visualize an
item, it is otherwise difficult to explain only in words.
To highlight
important points.
To provide
outline for materials covered in presentation.
To show
continuity in process.
For creating
problems and stimulating thinking.
For showing
development of structure.
Types
of charts:
Narrative chart: Arrangement of
facts and ideas for expressing the events in the process or development of a
significant issue to its point of resolution or we can show an improvement over
a period of years.
The
cause and effective chart: Arrangement of facts and ideas for expressing
the relationship between rights and responsibilities or between a complex of
conditions and change or conflict.
The
cause and effective chart: Arrangement of facts and ideas for expressing
the relationship between rights and responsibilities or between a complex of
conditions and change or conflict.
The chain chart: arrangement of
facts and ideas for expressing transitions or cycles.
The evolution chart: facts and ideas
for expressing changes in specific items from beginning data and its
projections in to future.
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Strip tease chart: it enables speaker
to present the information step by
It increases the
interest and imagination of the audience.
The information on the
chart is covered with thin paper strips to which it has been applied either by
wax, tape or sticky substance or pins.
As the speaker wishes
to visually reinforce a point with words or symbols, he removes the appropriate
strip or paper. It produces interest.
It increases learning
and aids recall.
Pull chart: it consists of written
messages which are hidden by strips of thick paper. The message can be shown to
the viewer, one after another by6 pulling out the concealing strips.
Flow chart: diagrams used to show
organizational elements or administrative or functional relationships. In this
chart lines, rectangles, circles, are connected by lines showing the
directional flow.
Tabulation chart: it shows the schedule of an activity or of an
individual ex: time-table of a class. These are very valuable aid in the
teaching situation where breakdown of a fact or a statement is to be listed.
Also it is a useful aid for showing points of comparison, distinction, and
contrasts between two or more things. While making the table charts the
following points must be kept in the mind.
The chart should
be 50 X 75 cm or more in size.
The chart should
be captioned in bold letters.
The vertical columns
should be filled in short phrases rather than complete sentences.
Flip chart: a set of charts related
to specific topic have been tagged together and hang on a supporting stand. The
individual charts will carry a series of related materials or messages in
sequence. The silent points of specific topic will be presented.
Pie chart: a circle will be drawn
and divisions will be made into different sections, each section will be coded
differently and code key will be given at right corner of the chart as legend.
The circumference is divided into suitable sections. It is relevant for showing
the component part
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FLASH
CARDS
Definition:
“Flash cards are
a set of pictured paper cards of varying sizes that are flashed one by one in a
logical sequence.”
‘’Flash cards
can be self made or commercially prepared and are made up of chart or drawing
paper, plane paper using colors or ink on them for drawings.’’
Purposes:
1.
To teach the students.
2.
To give health education.
3.
Useful for small group.
4.
Used in group discussions.
Principles:
The messages can be brief, simple line drawing or photographs, cartoons and the
content will be written in few lines at the back of the each card.
10” X 12” or 22” X 28” is commonly used size.
10-12 cards for one talk can be used. It should not be less than 3 and more
than 20.
Prepare a picture for each idea which will give visual impact to the idea.
The height of writing on the flash card is to be approximately 5cm for better
visualization.
Using
the flashcards:
For
class room instruction, the flash card s is to be properly used. The following
steps are used while displaying flash cards.
1.
Give brief introduction about the lesson to students.
2.
Give instructions to students about their actions while you flash the cards.
3.
Flash the card in front of the class by holding it high with both your hands so
that all the students can see it.
4.
Let the student respond as per instructions already given.
5.
Review the lesson by selectively using flash cards.
Advantages:
Flash cards can be used to introduce and present topics.
It can be used to apply information already gained by students to new
situations
It can be used to review a topic.
Can be used for drill and practice in elementary classes
To develop the cognitive abilities of recognition and recall of students.
It can work as a useful supplementary aid and can be effectively used with
other material.
Disadvantages:
Can not be used for a large group
Prone to get spoiled soon
Preparation is time consuming.
POSTERS
Definition:
“Posters are the graphic aids with short quick
and typical messages with attention capturing paintings.”
Purposes:
To provide general motivation.
To create an esthetic or atmospheric effect.
To communicate a more general idea. To thrust the message for leading to
action.
For the class room and community.
Preparation
and rules:
To do a special job.
To promote one point.
To support local demonstration.
Planned for specified people
Tell the message at single glance.
Use bold letters.
Use pleasing colors...
It should place, where people pass or gather.
Features
of a good poster:
Brevity: message should be concise
Simplicity: message should be easily understandable
Idea: should base on single idea and it should be relevant.
Color: suitable color and combination should be used to make the poster
attractive and eye catching.
Display: while displaying one should be sure to find a place where there is
ad4equate light and where the larger population will see it.
Advantages:
It attracts attention.
It conveys the message very quickly.
It does not require a detailed study.
Good poster leads to action with good motivation
It can stand alone and is self explanatory.
Disadvantages:
Poster does not
always give enough information
When a poster is
seen for longer time it may not attractive. So it should be dynamic
GRAPHS
Definition:
Graphs are the visual teaching aids for
presenting statistical data and contrasting the trends or changes of certain
attributes.
Method
of preparation:
Before making the bar chart makes a rough sketch of it in a note book.
For drawing the bar graph use the chart paper of 50x 72 cm size.
Use two different color shades for the two contrasting groups.
The bars should be equi-spaced.
Write the key to the bar graph in a box on the right hand side corner of the
chart paper.
Numbers specifying the magnitude of the bars should be on the top on the bars.
TYPES:
Pie
graph: These are called as circle diagram. The data are
presented thorough the sections of portions of a circle.
In determining the circumference of a circle we have to take in to
consideration a quantity known as pie.
The surface area of a circle is to cover 360 degree.
The total frequencies or value us equated to 360 degree and then the angles
corresponding to component parts are calculated.
After determining their angle, the required sectors in the circle are drawn.
Bar
graph:
The graphic
presentation extends the scale horizontally along the length of bars. Each bar
must be of the same width, height of the bar over a period represents the
corresponding time of the variable. Graphs are available in 2 forms that is
vertical and horizontal
Line graph:
To show the
trends and relationships ex: single line shows the relation and the variation
in the quantity. Quantitative data are plotted or when the data is continuous.
The concepts are represented with the help of lines drawn either horizontally
or vertically. The plotted points are connected to one another, instead of the
base thus producing the curve.
Pictorial
graph:
It is an out
standing method of graphic representation. Pictures are used for the expression
of ideal; they are more attractive and easily understood. Vivid pictures will
be used to create rapid association with the graphic message; each visual
symbol may be used to indicate quantity.
MAPS
Definition:
A map is a graphic aid representing the
proportionately as a diagram, the surface of the earth, world or parts there
of. It conveys the message by lines, symbols, words and colors.
Types
of maps:
Political maps: these maps show
political divisions of the world, a continent, a nation.
Physical maps: shows the physical
contour of a place, area, and region.
Relief maps: it shows the actual
elevations and depressions in a place, area, and region.
Weather maps: shows the amount of
rains, temperature extremes, humidity in an area, region country.
Population maps: shows the
distribution of population in various parts of region, country.
Picture or tourist maps: shows
historical spots monumental sites.etc..
Road maps: shows the roads of a
region connecting various parts and points together.
Railway maps: shows the railway
links between various points.
Air maps: shows the air routes
between various points.
Sea root maps: shows the sea routes
between various sea ports
CARTOONS
The word cartoon has various meanings, based on several very
different forms of visual art and illustration.
The term has evolved over time.
The original meaning was in fine art, and there cartoon meant a preparatory drawing for a piece of art such as a painting.
The original meaning was in fine art, and there cartoon meant a preparatory drawing for a piece of art such as a painting.
Definition:
A cartoon is humorous caricature which gives a
subtle message.
In a cartoon the
features of objects and people are exaggerated along with generally recognized
symbols.
Principles:
The quality of the drawing should be high primarily for visual effectiveness.
The symbols used should be familiar and represent a concept or idea to which
students can react intellectually.
Advantages:
A cartoon can be effectively used to initiate
certain lesson.
It can be used for making a lesson lively and interesting.
Fantasy
Satire
Exaggeration.
NEWS
PAPERS
It can furnish health messages in
local languages which cancan reach to the public easily. The information will
be available in low cost, easy to read and understand simple language .the
people may learn to read and interpret the contents along with pictures to
enhance easy grasping.
Advantages
Best method to reach a large group
Pictures will help in easy understanding
Attractive and easy to understand
Lot of information can be obtained in various fields
Disadvantages
useful for literates only
detailed information cannot be produces
COMIC
STRIPS
Definition:
A comic strip is the graphic depiction in a
series of pictures or sketches of some character and events full of action.
This medium of
communication is found very interesting and exciting by children.
Uses:
Comic strips fire the imagination of children
It boosts the courage of children and builds up the spirit of adventure.
It communication detailed and vivid.
It stimulates reality and involvement.
Limitations:
Comic strips misguide children by depicting characters with supernatural powers
divorced from the hard realities of life.
Comic strips hamper the development of language of children.
Classics brought out in the form of comics develop the tendency in children to
ignore or by pas s the original work.
Comics can soon become an obsession with young children and they tend to avoid
serious studies
3-
DIMENTIONAL AIDS
MODELS
Definition:
a model is a recognizable representation of a real thing three dimensionally,
that is height, width, and depth is felt as reality.
Types
of models:
1.
Solid models: it is the replica of
an original thing made with some suitable material like clay, plaster of Paris,
wood, iron etc. to show the external parts of the things. Ex: globe, clay model
of human and animal.
2.
Cutaway and x-ray models: are the
replicas of the original things to show internal parts of a thing. Cross
sectional models are difficult to make in the class room or institutions as
they require expertise to construct them. Ex: cross sectional model of human
body.
3.
Working models: these models are
either actual working things or their miniature replicas. For illustrating an
operation. Ex: a motor, a generator.
4.
Sand models: made by using sand,
clay, saw dust, ex: a tribal village, a forest area.
Advantages:
Models heighten reality of things and make
learning direct and meaningful as they are three dimensional.
Models illustrate the application side of certain principles and laws.
Models explain the complex and intricate operations in a simplified way and
thus make comprehension easier.
Models are lasting and ultimately work out to be cheaper teaching aids.
Still models are easy to make with the help of discarded materials like empty
boxes, pins, clips, nails, and clay.
Models are to reasonable size and convenient to handle.
Models involve the use of all the five senses and thus make learning effective.
Limitations:
It requires expertise to make.
Time consuming.
Some of the models may be very expensive.
OBJECTS
AND SPECIMENS
Definition:
A collection of real things for instructional
use refers to objects.
A specimen is a
sample of the real object or a material.
Using objects
and specimens: while using the specimen and objects as teaching aids, a teacher
must keep the following points in her
mind.
Plan your teaching with certain simple and direct observations of the object or
specimen being referred to.
Ask questions from the students to elicit more details of the features of the
object or specimen under observation.
Clarify and emphasize important structural details of the object or specimen
under observation
Provide review and practice to make learning permanent.
Sources
of objects and specimens:
Local markets
Manufacturers and factories
Discarded material from the houses
Specimen found in the nature can be collected by students from field trips and
nature hunt
Plasters casts can be purchased
Wild flowers, leaves shells, stones butterflies moths, insects can also be
procured.
Mounting
the objects and specimens:
Objects and specimens
should be mounted in shallow boxes in an artistic way and the boxes should be
covered with cellophane paper. Also label each object or specimen using self
adhesive paper.
Advantages
of objects and specimens:
Collection of objects and specimens by students requires interaction with
others leading to development of social skills and values.
Students when collect and display objects and specimens derive satisfaction of
contributing to the school and teacher something worthwhile.
Student’s power of observation and first hand experiences is enhanced by
collection of objects and specimens.
Student’s personal collection of objects and specimens can be good source of
doing investigatory projects.
Collection of objects and specimens become an interesting educational pursuit
of the teacher and students alike.
It arouse some interest among students in learning
Objects and specimens involve all the five senses in the process of learning
It heighten the reality in the class room
It makes teaching lively.
EXHIBITIONS
Many times in the
school, a department of the school or a class put up their work for showing it
to the people out side the school, and such a show called exhibitions.
The pieces of
work done by the students for an exhibition are called exhibits.
Requisites
for exhibition:
The exhibition should have a central theme with a few sub themes to focus
attention to a particular concept
The exhibits should be clean , labeled properly
The concepts of contrast in color and size should be used for lying out the exhibitions
The exhibits should be so placed so the most visitors , can see them
The place and exhibits should be well lighted
To capture attention and interest of visitors , both motion and sound should be utilized
The exhibition should have some exhibits with operative mechanism such as
switches, handles, to be operated by the visitors to observe some happenings.
The exhibition should include lot of demonstrations as they involve deeply the
students and the visitors
The exhibition should be able to relate various subjects’ areas to provide
integrated learning.
Advantages:
Exhibitions inspire the students to learn by doing things themselves and they
get a sense of involvement
Exhibitions give students a sense of accomplishment and achievement
Exhibitions develop social skills of communication , cooperation, coordination
Exhibitions foster better school
community relations and make community members
conscious about the school
Exhibitions couple information with pleasure
Exhibitions foster creativity among students.
Disadvantages:
Requires thorough preparation
Time consuming
Require funds or budget.
MUSEUMS
Definition:
A museum is a
building displaying a collection of historical relics, antiques, curiosities,
works of arts, works of science, literature and other artifacts of general
interest.
Museums can be
useful both for public education and specific class room instructions.
Setting
up school museum:
School should have enough space
Take the help of students, collect old and new objects and articles
Accept donations from various organizations who donates the articles
Students can be guided to prepare the exhibits
All the collected and prepared articles should be displayed and labeled
A detailed report book should be maintained giving a brief description of each museum pieces
The museum rooms should be well lighted
It should be cleaned and maintained timely.
Dioramas:
Definitions:
A diorama is a
three dimensional arrangement of related objects, models, and cut outs to
illustrate a central theme or concept.
The objects and
models are generally placed in a big box or show case with a glass covering and
background printed with a shade or a scene. Ex: a harvest scene, a planting
scene etc.
Advantages:
Provide a good opportunity to learn
it gives the appearance of actual things which can not be brought to the class
room
Interesting and enhance creativity
live things also can shown in diorama ex: aquarium
Provides students to do project works
Disadvantages:
sometimes cost effective
Needs expatriation for the preparation
require budget
Sometimes it may misguide the student if is not the replica of actual thing.
MOCK
UPS
It emphasizes
the functional relationship between the device reality and its workability.
Certain element of the original reality is emphasized to make it more
meaningful for the purpose of instruction.
In common usage, a mockup is a scale
model of a structure or device, usually used for teaching,
demonstration, testing a design, etc.
Mockups are also used in the Consumer goods industry, as part of the product development process, when the size, impression and/or artworks have to be tested and approved.
Mockup is also a frequently used term when talking about an early layout or sketch of a Web site or GUI program.
Mockups are also used in the Consumer goods industry, as part of the product development process, when the size, impression and/or artworks have to be tested and approved.
Mockup is also a frequently used term when talking about an early layout or sketch of a Web site or GUI program.
Ex: An artificial
kidney to demonstrate dialysis.
FIUPS
MOULAGE
Mould can be
made up of plastic material to stimulate some life in objects. ex: body which
shows evidence of trauma, infection, disease, surgical intervention.
IMAGE PERSPECTIVES' MOULAGE PROCESS
The basic material we
use to create our soft tissue injuries is very inexpensive; it costs only pennies
per simulation. If someone walks off with a simulation it can be recreated in a matter of minutes!
You are not limited to mass-produced latex or plastic "one-size-fits-all injuries". You determine the type, scope and Size of the injuries and create as many as you wish, in whatever size you need.
Our simulations can be handled and bandaged, with care, as you would a real injury. The simulations will not shift and/or be damaged. When bandages are removed, the injury simulation will remain intact. The simulations can be made liquid-proof, and with care - reusable!
You are not limited to mass-produced latex or plastic "one-size-fits-all injuries". You determine the type, scope and Size of the injuries and create as many as you wish, in whatever size you need.
Our simulations can be handled and bandaged, with care, as you would a real injury. The simulations will not shift and/or be damaged. When bandages are removed, the injury simulation will remain intact. The simulations can be made liquid-proof, and with care - reusable!
PUPPETS
One of the old and popular arts in Indian
villages is puppetry. Puppetry is an education cum entertaining aid in which
puppets manipulated by the performer is a person termed as a characters in a
story to be depicted.
Definition:
A
puppet is a manipulative doll dressed as a character and the performer is a
person termed as a puppeteer. A good puppeteer has to blend his art with
dramatization to produce the desired effect. It is used as an effective
teaching aid for languages and social sciences.
Types
of puppets
1. String or
marionettes puppets:-Marionettes consist of puppets with
hinged body parts which are controlled by nine strings produces required
movements in the puppet. These puppets are mainly manipulated by professional
puppeteers.
2. Stick puppets: -
stick puppet are the painted cutouts attached by sticks. The actions of these
puppets are manipulated by the teacher and students by hiding behind a screen
so that only puppets are visible to the audience or the class.
3. Shadow
puppets: - shadow puppets are silhouettes of cardboard
which produce shadows on white screen. The motion of these silhouettes is
manipulated by the teacher and students.
4. Finger of
hand puppet: - Hand puppets are round balls painted
as heads with overflowing colorful costumes. These are worn on fingers which
operate their movements. These are operated from below the stage.
Selection:
In writing or
selecting a puppet play, the age, background and tastes of the students should
be taken in to consideration. A short puppet play is always preferable.
Advantages:
1) Creates
interest
2) Gives the
knowledge in a brief period
3) Puppet is an
effective method in teaching.
4) Motivate
students
5) Easy to carry
and operate
Disadvantages
1) Needs group
cooperation and coordination
2) Requires
skills in preparation and supply
3) Skills needed
in presentation
DISPLAY BOARDS
CHALK BOARD DEFINITION
A chalkboard or blackboard is a reusable writing
surface on which text or drawings are made with chalk
or other erasable markers. Black boards were originally made of smooth, thin
sheets of black or dark grey slate stone. Modern versions are often green or
brown and are thus sometimes called a green board or brown board instead.
A blackboard can simply be a piece of board painted with matte dark paint (usually black or dark green). A more modern variation consists of a coiled sheet of plastic drawn across two parallel rollers, which can be scrolled to create additional writing space while saving what has been written. The highest grade chalkboards are made of a rougher version porcelain enameled steel (black, green, blue or sometimes other colours). Porcelain is very hard wearing and chalkboards made of porcelain usually last 10-20 years in intensive use.
Blackboards have disadvantages:
A blackboard can simply be a piece of board painted with matte dark paint (usually black or dark green). A more modern variation consists of a coiled sheet of plastic drawn across two parallel rollers, which can be scrolled to create additional writing space while saving what has been written. The highest grade chalkboards are made of a rougher version porcelain enameled steel (black, green, blue or sometimes other colours). Porcelain is very hard wearing and chalkboards made of porcelain usually last 10-20 years in intensive use.
Blackboards have disadvantages:
They produce a fair amount of dust, depending on the quality of chalk used.
Some people find this uncomfortable or may be allergic to it, and there has been speculation about links between chalk dust and respiratory problems. The dust also precludes the use of chalk in areas shared with dust-sensitive equipment such as computers. However, these alternative methods of displaying information have drawbacks of their own. The scratching of fingernails on a blackboard is a sound that is well-known for being extremely irritating. Blackboards are also used in many establishments (typically public houses) as a form of advertising often for upcoming events and menus - as well as to keep the score in darts matches
Some people find this uncomfortable or may be allergic to it, and there has been speculation about links between chalk dust and respiratory problems. The dust also precludes the use of chalk in areas shared with dust-sensitive equipment such as computers. However, these alternative methods of displaying information have drawbacks of their own. The scratching of fingernails on a blackboard is a sound that is well-known for being extremely irritating. Blackboards are also used in many establishments (typically public houses) as a form of advertising often for upcoming events and menus - as well as to keep the score in darts matches
FLANNEL
BOARD
Sometimes called a flannel graph.
This teaching
tool is called by different names:
Visual Board , Frick Board, Slap Board, Felt Board, Choreograph, Video graph
Visual Board , Frick Board, Slap Board, Felt Board, Choreograph, Video graph
Flannel graph is a storytelling system that uses a board covered with flannel
fabric, usually resting on an easel. It is very similar to Fuzzy
felt, although its primary use is as a storytelling
medium, rather than as a toy
How to use
The principle
involved is the inter1ooking of fibers of two rough or bairy surfaces, so that
the pieces pressed on to a background which is hard and vertical will stay. It
can be illustrated on a larger scale by pressing two tooth brushes or hair
brushes together, so the bristle inter-1ook. In case of flannel graph similar
principle of friction helps an object to cling to the surface of the board.
The flannel board is usually painted to depict a
background scene appropriate to the story being told. Paper cutouts of
characters and objects in the story are then place on the board, and moved
around, as the story unfolds. These cutouts are backed, either with flannel, or
with some other substance that adheres lightly to the flannel background, such
as coarse sandpaper.
ADVANTAGES
1) Permits
numerous and varied arrangements of visua1 materials.
2) Permits the
use of either chart or small pieces of material Materials can be packed and
transported complete notes. 3) Permits the development of a complete story.
4) Promotes
conscientious planning, which must precede the development of the material in
the first place.
5) Challenges
one to develop symbols to portray such things as abstractions.
6) Easier to construct materials for flannel
board than to make slides or movies.
Disadvantages:
1)
Transportation
and storing of boards and materials is a problem. Suitable tables to support
boards must be available.
2) Time and cost
of making material for presentation present a problem.
3) Cost of
boards themselves can't be overlooked.
4) Presentation is limited a new idea involves
a lapse of time before the new material can be added
.5) Might tend
to deter one from using other more effective methods and techniques when it is
evident that other methods might be more appropriate.
6) To tell a
complete story it often takes either too much board space or smaller designs
and materials some of which cannot be seen well.
BULLETIN
BOARD
DEFINITION
It is a soft
board which will hold pins or tags almost suitable. Simple device placed either
indoor or outdoor. Items generally displayed are photographs, publications,
posters, news paper cut outs.
Advantages
Explains important events Reports special activities
Disadvantages
Not effective for illiterate group.
Takes lot of
preplanning and preparation
A bulletin board (pin board, pin board
or notice board in British English) is a place where people can leave
public messages,
for example, to advertise things to buy or sell, announce events or provide
information. Dormitory
corridors, well-trafficked hallways, lobbies, and freestanding kiosks often
have cork boards attached to facilitate the posting of notices. At some
universities, lampposts,
bollards,
trees, and walls often become impromptu postering sites in areas where official
boards are sparse in number.
PEG
BOARD
It is a type of board which contains small holes to fix certain letters
into the holes which is used especially in the offices to display certain
items, name of the personal or faculty member.
MAGNETIC
BOARDS
It is a framed iron sheet carrying porcelain coating in some dark color
generally black or green. It can be used to display pictures, cutouts and light
objects with disc magnets or magnetic holders.
Advantages
Movement of visual material is easy.
AUDITORY
AIDS
These are also
an effective aid, usually radios, recorders, gram phones come under this
category.
Using
a record player for teaching:
-A
record player can be used in the following ways in the actual class room
situation
A record player
can be used to supplement a lesson.
A record player
can be used for an appreciation lesson in music.
A record player
can be used for an appreciation lesson in literature.
A record player
can be used for students to acquire the singing ability, deliver a speech
properly, and recite a poem in the right way.
The player can
be used to end or conclude a lesson;
Introduce a
lesson and review a lesson.
A record player
can be used for physical exercises accompanied with music
TAPE
RECORDER:
A tape recorder
is a portable electronic gadget to record, reproduce, erase and re record sound
on a magnetic tape. This device can be used without much fuss by any body by
operating the following press buttons attached to the recorder, viz, stop,
play, wind, rewind, record, pause, and eject.
Uses:
it
is used to learn foreign languages, rhymes, and songs with clarity. GRAME
PHONES Like radio gramophones are also important teaching devices. Helps to
listen to famous speeches
To teach good
pronunciation in a foreign
ACTIVITY
AIDS
There
are certain learning situations in which student participation through direct
experiences can be easily incorporated, these are called activity aids. The
activity teaching aids are really of great value as they put students in a role
of active seekers of knowledge. There are five important activity teaching
aids, which are listed below:-
1) Field trips
2)
Demonstrations
3) Experiments
4) Dramatizations
FIELD
TRIPS
DEFINITIONS
According
to Hedger ken Field trip may be defined as “an educational procedure by which
the student studies firsthand objects and materials in their natural
environment.”
Types
of field trips: -
Depending
on the place of visit and its duration, field trips are mainly of the following
four types, namely:-
a) Local school
trips
b) Community
trip
c) Educational
trips
d) The natural
hunt
Advantages
of field trip:
Field trip
provides learning experience in the real life situation by direct contact with
objects, process, and systems and thus has many advantages which are enumerated
as follows:
->It
provides accurate information objects, process, and systems in their real life
setting.
->It
provides meaningful direct experience and hence results in lasting learning.
->The
students learning can be easily diverted towards effective learning.
->Field
trips are valuable aids to what students are curious about the natural and
man-made process and objects.
->field
trips can effectively supplement the classroom learning through application and
reviewing the experiences of student.
Limitations
of field trip:
1) A field trip
may be occasional activity which at best supplement some learning segments of
the syllabus.
2) They can be
expensive and out of reach for many disadvantaged and poor students.
3) Field trips
require proper and detailed planning to make them meaningful otherwise the trip
leads to confusion, and fails to fulfill the requirement
DEMONSTRATIONS:-
Demonstration
method is a concrete visual aid, because of its wide use in the teaching of
nurses. In nursing education, it is used for this purpose and also for clinics,
conferences, laboratory classes, symposia, autopsies, and teaching of health to
patients. The demonstration method teaches by explanation and exhibition. In
short, it is a performance to show a process or activity to others. When a
teacher demonstrates, students observe and imitate to learn
Advantages
of demonstration:-
The following
are the advantages of demonstration method.
1) It activates
several senses. This increases learning, because it gives a better opportunity
for observational learning.
2) It clarifies
the underlying principles by demonstrating the ‘why’ or ‘how’ of the procedure.
3) It provokes
interest by use of concrete illustrations.
4) It correlates
theory with practice engages student’s attention and concentration.
5) It encourages student’s participation in
learning through questions and answers as the teacher performs.
EXPERIMENT
An
experiment is a learning activity in which students collect and interpret
observations using measuring instruments to reach some conclusions. In science
subjects experiments are used invariably used as instructional aid as they
encourage learning by doing. While giving a lesson on an experiment, the
teacher should organize the instruction so as to make the students aware of the
following steps of the experiments:
1) Objectives of
the experiments
2) Apparatus
required
3) Procedure or
methodology
4) Observations
of data
5) Computation
(totaling) of the observations made.
6) Results or
conclusion
7) Precautions
8) Ideas for
future work
The student
performs the experiment and writes a report on it. Showing the cause and effect
relationship.
DRAMATIZATION
Dramatization
is a very potent method of keeping the class room instruction lively and
interesting. When a teacher dramatizes a lesson, the students become both the
spectators and participants. This makes learning easy and permanents.
Types of dramatizations
suitable for class room instruction:-
1)
Role-play
2)
Play lets
3)
Pageant
4)
Pantomime
5)
Tableaux
Advantages of dramatization:
1)Dramatization
gives an added advantage of students working as both observers (spectators) and
doers (participants) unlike in experiment where there are just doers and in
demonstration where there are just observers.
2) Dramatization
makes learning a pleasure children love to act and show off.
3) Dramatization
involves students totally and they appreciate the lessons remember it better
4) Dramatization
develops the social skills required for them such as cooperation,
co-ordination, punctuality, and human relations etc.
5) Dramatization
makes students creative, sensitive, and alert
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